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Southern Spaces

A journal about real and imagined spaces and places of the US South and their global connections

Atlanta's Charis Books and More: Histories of a Feminist Space

...or women from non-middle-class backgrounds. However, as Faderman notes with regard to young lesbians of this period who had been born into poor or working-class families, "the democratization of higher...

"The Emblem of North American Fraternity": Opossums and Jim Crow Politics

...in the case of fried chicken in her chapter "More Than Just the 'Big Piece of Chicken': The Power of Race, Class and Food in American Consciousness," in Food and...

In Good Faith: Working-Class Women, Feminism, and Religious Support in the Struggle to Organize J. P. Stevens Textile Workers in the Southern Piedmont, 1974–1980

...working-class women embraced (or even tolerated) the principles and values of women's liberation should not be exaggerated. Brody recalls white working-class women punishing her through gossip and shunning for wearing...

New Pasts: Historicizing Immigration, Race, and Place in the South

...southern locales, Memphis’s growing immigrant population attracted little attention during mayoral campaigns, which unfolded along familiar black-white lines complicated by class. Major controversy erupted, however, in 1997, when Hispanic business...

Genres of Southern Literature

...1856. Map created by William C. Reynolds and J.C. Jones. Courtesy of the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, www.loc.gov/resource/g3701e.ct000604/. The quest to classify the literature has continued unabated for...

Before Tuskegee: Public Health and Venereal Disease in Hot Springs, Arkansas

...offers insights into racial, gendered, and class-based aspects of the federal government's campaign against syphilis and gonorrhea. The clinic treated all manner of patients—black as well as white, male as...

Going South, Coming North: Migration and Union Organizing in Morristown, Tennessee

...out the working class segments of each racial group, and we suspect the situation of white working class people is more effectively obscured in these statistics, since they are likely...

African American Community Building in Atlanta: A Guide to the Study of Race in America

...in Black enterprise in Atlanta. His business anchored the Auburn Avenue district, which in its heyday in the 1920s was considered the most significant Black business district in the country....

Back to the Future: Mapping Workers Across the Global South

...mills and factories. Manufacturers touted the dexterity and "nimble fingers" of female employees, who nevertheless were classified as unskilled labor. Small female hands were considered ideal for the tasks of...

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References
1.	Historians repeatedly argue that the globalization of markets, labor, and investment is anything but new, giving credence to the adage plus ça change, plus c'est pareil—the more things change, the more they stay the same. See Coclanis, Peter A, "Back to the Future: The Globalization of Agriculture in Historical Context," SAIS Review 23, no. 1 (Winter–Spring 2003): 71–84, and Donna R. Gabaccia's review of recent works on women's labor from a global perspective in "Beyond 'Déjà vu All Over Again?' Women's Work in the Global Economy," Journal of Women's History 19, no. 3 (October 2007), 222–31.
2.	Peter Kolchin, Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987).
3.	Karimov has insisted that his photograph be prominently displayed in each classroom, public building, and factory across Uzbekistan. Excerpts from his publications containing advice and adages are posted on blue-and-white billboards throughout the country. The air base the United States leased from Uzbekistan is commonly referred to as "K2." See Robin Wright and Ann Scott Tyson, "U.S. Evicted From Air Base In Uzbekistan," Washington Post, July 30, 2005.
4.	Alfred Dockery, "Southern Hospitality by Association," Textile World 28, no. 5 (May 1999): 112–117.
5.	Lillian Link, Secretary-Treasurer, Southern Textile Association, Belmont, N.C., telephone interview with author, June 24, 2008.
6.	"Pictures of Poor Business," Textile American 13, no. 4 (April 1910): 16; Howard Ayers, "Certain Aspects of the Export Trade," Textile American, 13, no. 1 (January 1910): 22. See also Gregory Clark, "Why Isn't the Whole World Developed? Lessons from the Cotton Mills," Journal of Economic History 47, no. 1 (March 1987): 141–173. On the long history of industrialization in Britain, see Phyllis Deane and W.A. Cole, British Economic Growth, 1688–1959: Trends and Structure (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967).
7.	Ching Kwan Lee, "Rights Activism in China," Contexts 7, no. 3 (Summer 2008): 16.
8.	Alexander Jung and Wieland Wagner, "Vietnam is the New China: Globalization's Victors Hunt for the Next Low-Wage Country," Spiegel Online International, May 14, 2008.
9.	Gavin Wright, "Cheap Labor and Southern Textiles, 1880–1930," Quarterly Journal of Economics 96, no. 4 (November 1981): 611. See Mary E. Frederickson, "A Place to Speak Our Minds: Locating Women's Activism Where North Meets South," Journal of Developing Societies 23, no. 1–2 (2007): 59–70, and "Historical Consciousness and Women's Activism," in Gender and Globalization: Patterns of Women's Resistance, eds. Ligaya Lindio-McGovern and Erica Polakoff (Willowdale, Ontario: de Sitter Publications, 2010); Delfino and Gillespie, eds., Global Perspectives on Industrial Transformation in the American South (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2005); and Carlton and Coclanis, The South, the Nation, and the World: Perspectives on Southern Economic Development (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003).
10.	Wright, "Cheap Labor and Southern Textiles, 1880–1930," 627.
11.	China Labour Bulletin, "Falling through the Floor: Migrant Women Workers' Quest for Decent Work in Dongguan, China," CLB Research Series no. 2 (September 2006). See Jane L. Collins, Threads: Gender, Labor, and Power in the Global Apparel Industry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 157.
12.	Sabyasachi Mitra, "Chinese Textile Workers Face a Lose-Lose Situation as China Joins the WTO," China Report 39, no. 1 (2003): 81–86. See also Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, "Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing," Feminist Review 7, no. 1 (Spring 1981): 87–107.
13.	China Labour Bulletin, "Falling through the Floor." For an excellent overview of the major labor issues in contemporary China, see Dorothy Sue Cobble, Mary Nolan, and Peter Winn, eds, "Labor in a Changing China," International Labor and Working-Class History 73, no. 1 (Spring 2008).
14.	Wage differential figures from H. J. Lahne, The Cotton Mill Worker (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1944), 165–66.
15.	Judith Banister cited in McCormack, "Good Luck Competing Against Chinese Labor Costs," Manufacturing & Technology News 13, no. 9 (May 2, 2006).
16.	Elizabeth H. Davidson, Child Labor Legislation in the Southern Textile States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 11. Figures on women workers from Lahne, The Cotton Mill Worker, 290, and US Congress, Senate, Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, vol. 1, Cotton Textile Industry, Senate Document no. 645, 61st Cong., 2nd sess. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1910, 29.
17.	US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, 177.
18.	George Baldanzi, "The South Is 32 Million Americans," Labor and Nation 1 (April/May 1946), 43. Figures on women's contribution to family income available in Lahne, The Cotton Mill Worker, 134–35, and in Textile Workers Union of America, Southern Textile Conference Notes, Atlanta, January 25, 1941, 12.
19.	International Labour Organization, "Facts on Child Labour" (Geneva: ILO Department of Communication and Public Information, 2006).
20.	Mary Frederickson, "Four Decades of Change: Black Workers in Southern Textiles, 1949–1981," in James Green, ed., Workers' Struggles, Past and Present (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983); and Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
21.	Dru C. Gladney, "China's Ethnic Divisions are Showing Up and Could Cause Trouble," International Herald Tribune, February 22, 1995.
22.	Edith Kowski to A. J. Muste, September 8, 1928, Box 70, Brookwood Labor College Record. The other major type of southern industrialist was the absentee owner. Beginning in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, northern manufacturers invested heavily in southern industry to create a regional colonial economy, supplying raw materials and labor for businesses based in the North. Profits were skimmed and reinvested far from southern mill communities. This system of absentee ownership allowed manufacturers to intransigently oppose the demands of workers with whom they had no direct contact and in whose community they had only an economic interest. While absentee owners and paternalistic mill barons had very different philosophies of social organization and control, they were united in their opposition to all efforts to unionize "their people." For a discussion of northern investment in the South and its effects, see C. Vann Woodward, The Origins of the New South,1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951), 291–320, and Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 433–72.
23.	Mei Fong, "A Chinese Puzzle: Surprising Shortage of Workers Forces Factories to Add Perks," Wall Street Journal, August 16, 2004.
24.	"Georgia: Gene & Junior," Time Magazine, September 7, 1936, 10–11.
25.	Karin A. Shapiro, A New South Rebellion: The Battle Against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1871–1896 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 13.
26.	Collins, Threads, 4.
27.	The estimate of 40 percent comes from conversations with Uzbek women in 2006. For a detailed study, see Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, "Domestic Violence in Uzbekistan," December 2000. Available at: http://www.mnadvocates.org/uploads/Uzbekreport.pdf [accessed 3–26–10]. The Uzbek government maintains no official statistics on the problem.
28.	"The Industrial South," Fortune Magazine, November 18, 1938, 44–55.
29.	Ethel L. Best, Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1926), 16–17.
30.	For an overview of southern organizing, see Jacquelyn D. Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Kornstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones, and Christopher B. Daly, Like A Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Hall, "Disorderly Women: Gender and Labor Militancy in the Appalachian South," Journal of American History 73 (September 1986): 354–82; Clete Daniel, Culture of Misfortune (Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 2001) ; Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Civil Rights (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993) ; Janet Irons, Testing the New Deal: The General Textile Strike of 1934 in the American South (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000); Robert R. Korstad, Civil Rights Unionism: Tobacco Workers and the Struggle for Democracy in the Mid-Twentieth Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); and Leon Fink, The Maya of Morgantown: Work and Community in the Nueva New South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
31.	On Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988); quote from Mary Frederickson, "'I know which side I'm on': Southern Women in the Labor Movement in the Twentieth Century," in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985).
32.	Mary Frederickson, "Heroines and Girl Strikers: Gender and Organized Labor in the Twentieth Century South," in Robert H. Zieger, ed., Organized Labor in the Twentieth Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991). On the Southern Summer School, see Mary Frederickson, "A Place to Speak Our Minds: Locating Women's Activism Where North Meets South," The Journal of Developing Societies, Vol. 23, no. 1–2 (2007): 59–70. On Highlander's history, see John M. Glen, Highlander: No Ordinary School, 1932–1962 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1988).
33.	The International Ladies' Garment Workers Union, AFL-CIO, Local 351, had already represented the primarily female workforce for a number of years when this violation of the National Labor Relations Act occurred. On the Stevens' campaign, see Timothy Minchin, "Don't Sleep with Stevens!" The J.P. Stevens Campaign and the Struggle to Organize the South, 1963–80 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2005).
34.	On the migratory history of industrial corporations over the course of the twentieth century within and outside of the United States, see Jefferson R. Cowie, Capital Moves: RCA's Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999).
35.	David Barboza, "In Chinese Factories, Lost Fingers and Low Pay," New York Times, January 5, 2008.
36.	For reports of child labor used by US corporations, including Wal-Mart, Disney, and Hasbro, see ibid. For an extensive examination of the state of China's prison labor system (laogai) and how Chinese prison-made products enter the United States, see US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, Memoranda of Understanding Between the U.S. and China Regarding Prison Labor, 110th Cong., 2d sess., June 19, 2008.
37.	Nelson Lichtenstein, interviewed on Frontline, "Is Wal-mart Good For America?" PBS, November 16, 2004; and Lichtenstein, The Retail Revolution: How Wal-Mart Created a Brave New World of Business (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009).
38.	Elzabeth Hollander, "Outlook: 'Hellraiser Martha Ojeda.'" Mother Jones (November/December 1999), 21; Mariclaire Acosta Urquidi, "The Women of Ciudad Juárez," Center for Latin American Studies, UC Berkeley Working Papers Series, no. 3 (May 2005); STITCH, Women Behind the Labels: Worker Testimonies from Central America (Toronto: Maquila Solidarity Network and STITCH, 2000); Dale Hathaway, Allies Across the Border: Mexico's "Authentic Labor Front" and Global Solidarity (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2000). For more information on the movement in Mexico, see Dan La Botz, "Mexico's Labor Movement in Transition," Monthly Review 57, no. 2 (2005): 62–72.
39.	Ngai and Ling, "Community Based Labour Organizing," International Union Rights 11, no. 4 (2004): 10-11.
40.	Christopher Bodeen, "Two Women Arrested in Eastern China for Organizing Labor Protests," AP Worldstream, October 26, 2004.
41.	Robin Alexander and Peter Gilmore, "A Strategic Organizing Alliance Across Borders," in The Transformation of U.S. Unions: Voices, Visions and Strategies from the Grassroots, eds. Ray M. Tillman and Michael S. Cummings (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999): 255–266. For information on the Highlander Research and Education Center's current transnational work, see Barbara Ellen Smith, "Across Races and Nations: Social Justice Organizing in the Transnational South," in Smith and Furuseth, eds., Latinos in the New South: Transformations of Place (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2006): 235–56.
42.	The Binational Feminist Collective is an independent group that promotes the human rights of female workers in the maquiladora industry. The Binational is associated with the non-governmental organization CITTAC (Centro de Información para Trabajadoras y Trabajadores A.C) in Baja, California.
43.	Mitra, "Chinese Textiles Workers Face a Lose-Lose Situation as China Joins the WTO."
44.	Cheng, "Labor Unrest Is Growing In China," Bloomberg News, October 27, 2004.
45.	China Labour Bulletin, "Trade Union Official Says China Is Just One Step Away From the Right to Strike," China Labour Bulletin, June 17, 2008.
46.	Moyers, Bill Moyers Journal, PBS, August 22, 2008. Gerard Greenfield and Apo Leong, "China's Communist Capitalism," Socialist Register 33 (1997): 96–122.
47.	Thank you to Lawrence Gross, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, for his expertise in identifying the Margilan looms. For more on Draper looms, see see William Mass, "Mechanical and Organizational Innovation," Business History Review 63, no. 4 (Winter, 1989): 876–929.
48.	Joan Kiplinger, "The Indian Head Connection III, Springs Industries—117 Years Young," Vintage Fabrics (January/February 2004). http://www.fabrics.net/joan204.asp (accessed August 9, 2010).
49.	Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan, "Uzbekistan in the Twentieth Century," http://mfa.uz/eng/about_uzb/history/uzb_20th-90th/ (accessed August 8, 2010). On the shipment of American industrial equipment to the USSR, see Nikolai V. Sivachev and Nikolai N. Yakovlev, Russia and the United States, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 85–89, and Davis S. Foglesong, The American Mission and the 'Evil Empire:' The Crusade for a 'Free Russia' Since 1881 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 95–100.
50.	Willie Drye, "In US South Textile Mills Gone But Not Forgotten," National Geographic News, October 19, 2004; Steve Inskeep, "Former S.C. Textile Workers Look for Ways to Cope," National Public Radio, August 13, 2008; Timothy J. Minchin, "'It knocked this city to its knees': The Closure of Pillowtex Mills in Kannapolis, North Carolina and the Decline of the US Textile Industry." Labor History 50 (2009): 287–311.
51.	See Marfua Tokhtakhokzhaeva, The Re-Islamization of Society and the Position of Women in Post-Soviet Uzbekistan (Kent, UK: Global Oriental Publishers, 2008). Tokhtakhokzhaeva, the co-founder of the Women's Resource Centre of Tashkent, emphasizes that "life in Uzbekistan has always seen a balance of good and bad in each era." For more on the relationship between the local and the global, see Nancy A. Naples and Manisha Desai, Women's Activism and Globalization: Linking Local Struggles and Transnational Politics (London: Routledge, 2002).
52.	"'Where Do Human Rights Begin?' Remarks at the United Nations, March 27, 1953," in Allida Mae Black, Courage in a Dangerous World: The Political Writings of Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 190.
53.	Tina Rosenberg, "Globalization," New York Times Magazine, August 18, 2002.
54.	Cowie 11.
55.	Janet Patterson, Interviewed by Betty Ann Bowser, "Textile Jobs in Decline," News Hour, PBS, September 23, 2008.
56.	STITCH; China Labour Bulletin, "Falling through the Floor," 40.