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Ethnic Cleansing and the Trail of Tears: Cherokee Pasts, Places, and Identities

...struggle to resettle, build new homes, plant new gardens, and learn about new weather patterns. It demanded a reimagination of who the Cherokee were, how they connected to the world,...

Bioregional Approach to Southern History: The Yazoo-Mississippi Delta

...Faulkner, Big Woods: The Hunting Stories (Originally published in New York: Random House, 1955; New York: Vintage International, 1994), [166]. As more dependable levees for the protection of croplands and...

Naming Each Place

...work of other black writers Part 3: Trethewey and Brown discuss writing against the New Critics Part 4: Trethewey and Brown discuss working and hanging out in New Orleans and more Part...

New Adventures in Tandem Ethnography

...in the corner of the room, making small talk in Cajun French even though my "project" tries to avoid nativist ideologies about Louisiana culture.2For instance, the ideologies that promote a...

Telling the Raymond Andrews Story: The Making of Somebody Else, Somewhere Else

...was Raymond Andrews? I wanted to know because I was a lover of literature from and about Georgia, but also because I am from Madison, Georgia, and I knew of...

Baptists and Witches: Multiple Jurisdictions in a Muskogee Creek Story

...an instant, and Shirley was quiet. It was three days now since Shirley had begun to die, and everyone knew now and had given up any hope. Even the white...

Still under the Influence: The Bioregional Origins of the Hub City Writers Project

...were serious. You knew that at Imprint you could find a new volume that could send your head and heart in a different direction. At Imprint Bookstore I bought a...

Goin' to Chicago and African American "Great Migrations"

...with a simulated newsreel. This particular example celebrates Bronzeville, a name coined to describe the vitality of Chicago’s South Side in its heyday during the 1930s and ‘40s. The “newsreel”...

Envisioning Faulkner and Southern Literature

...Quarterly Review (Spring 1975), 222–239; Cleanth Brooks's "Southern Literature: The Wellsprings of Its Vitality," Georgia Review 16 (1962), 238–253; Flannery O'Connor's Mystery and Manners: Occasional Prose (New York: Farrar, Straus...

References
1.	A great deal has been written on the phenomena of southern literature and the particularized role of culture in the South's dynamic history of aesthetic productions. For analyses speculating on this literary emergence, see Allen Tate's "The Profession of Letters in the South," Virginia Quarterly Review 11 (1935), 161–176; C. Vann Woodward's "Why the Southern Renaissance?," Virginia Quarterly Review (Spring 1975), 222–239; Cleanth Brooks's "Southern Literature: The Wellsprings of Its Vitality," Georgia Review 16 (1962), 238–253; Flannery O'Connor's Mystery and Manners: Occasional Prose (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969); Eudora Welty's The Eye of the Story (New York: Random House, 1978); Fred Hobson's Tell About the South: The Southern Rage to Explain (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Daniel Joseph Singal's The War Within: From Victorian to Modernist Thought in the South, 1919–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982); and Ralph Ellison's Shadow and Act (New York: Random House, 1964).
2.	Thadious M. Davis, "From Jazz Syncopation to Blues Elegy: Faulkner's Development of Black Characterizations," in Faulkner and Race: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, 1986, ed. Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1987), 70–72.
3.	Born in Columbus, Georgia, Chattanooga, Tennessee, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, respectively, all these artists were major figures in defining secular music that had its roots in the South. (The baby who would become Billie Holiday was born of a thirteen-year-old mother who had been thrown out of her family's home in Baltimore for being unmarried and pregnant. Kept by family in Baltimore during her early years, Holiday herself is on record as having occasionally claimed Baltimore as the city of her birth.) Meanwhile, other major figures, like Mamie Smith, born in Cincinnati, Ohio (just across the river from Southgate, Kentucky), and Trixie Smith, a university-educated blues great born into a middle-class home in Atlanta, suggest some of the borders crossed in this period of cultural transformation.
4.	For a discussion of the Sophie Newcomb arts and crafts movement and other pottery-based art forms, see Susan Donaldson's "Cracked Urns: Faulkner, Gender, and Art in the South," in Faulkner and the Artist: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, 1993 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1996). For a discussion of the nineteenth-century Carolina Piedmont tradition and the emergence of folk pottery forms, see Charles G. Zug III, Turners and Burners: The Folk Potters of North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
5.	Davis, "From Jazz Syncopation to Blues Elegy," 71–72.
6.	Woodward, "Why the Southern Renaissance?," 222–239.
7.	Louis Rubin, "The Dixie Special: William Faulkner and the Southern Literary Renascence" [1982], in The Mockingbird in the Gum Tree: A Literary Gallimaufry (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991), 39.
8.	A list partial and incomplete would include James Agee, Dorothy Allison, Raymond Andrews, Maya Angelou, Harriette Arnow, Doris Betts, Arna Bontemps, Olive Ann Burns, George Washington Cable, Erskine Caldwell, Truman Capote, Fred Chappell, Charles Chesnutt, Kate Chopin, Pat Conroy, Hubert Creekmore, Harry Crews, James Dickey, Ellen Douglas, Alice Dunbar- Nelson, Ralph Ellison, Fannie Flagg, Shelby Foote, Ernest Gaines, Tim Gautreaux, Ellen Glasgow, Caroline Gordon, Shirley Ann Grau, Barry Hannah, John Wylie Henderson, Mary Hood, William Bradford Huie, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Randall Keenan, Barbara Kingsolver, Harper Lee, Andrew Lytle, Bobbie Ann Mason, Jill McCorkle, Carson McCullers, Margaret Mitchell, Gurney Norman, Flannery O’Connor, John Kennedy O'Toole, Breece D'J Pancake, Walker Percy, William Alexander Percy, Katherine Anne Porter, Reynolds Price, Ron Rash, Ishmael Reed, Elise Sanguinetti, Evelyn Scott, Mary Lee Settle, Lee Smith, Elizabeth Spencer, William Styron, Allen Tate, Peter Taylor, Jean Toomer, Alice Walker, Margaret Walker, Robert Penn Warren, Eudora Welty, Thomas Wolfe, and Richard Wright.
9.	Elizabeth Ammons, Conflicting Stories: American Women Writers at the Turn into the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 125.
10.	For more on collage in African American art, see Rachel Farebrother's The Collage Aesthetic in the Harlem Renaissance (London: Ashgate, 2009).
11.	For more on racial identity in Toomer's life and work, see Rudolph P. Byrd and Henry Louis Gates Jr.'s essay "'Song of the Son': The Emergence and Passing of Jean Toomer" in the 2011 Norton critical edition of Cane.
12.	Alice Walker, "Beyond the Peacock: The Reconstruction of Flannery O'Connor," in In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), 43. While Walker does not identify herself as "southern," she also does not cede ground. In response to a speaker's assertion that "we" "lost the [Civil] War," Walker with clipped irony asked, "What do you mean 'we'?" (The added address to the female speaker as "white man" is of course implied here.) Walker's critique of Faulkner's fiction using his public pronouncements in advocating gradualism in relation to change in racist policies as a lens for critique is well known. For insight into this view as well as others in the complex history of "Afro-American" writers' responses to Faulkner's provocations, see Craig Werner's excellent analysis, "Minstrel Nightmares: Black Dreams of Faulkner's Dreams of Blacks," in Faulkner and Race: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, 1986, ed. Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1987).
13.	Styron quoted in Tony Horwitz, "Untrue Confessions," New Yorker, December 13, 1999, 84.
14.	Anne McKnight, "Crypticism, or Nakagami Kenji's Transplanted Faulkner: Plants, Saga, and Sabetsu," Faulkner Journal of Japan 1 (May 1999), http://www.faulknerjapan.com/journal/No1/anne.htm.
15.	Werner, "Minstrel Nightmares." In this still relevant essay from a quarter of a century ago, Werner predicts cycles and finds patterns in the varied African American creative as well as critical riffs on Faulkner's fiction. Questions of female voice and queries concerning ways that race and history have forged definitions of class distinguish Werner's essay as a prescient work of cultural interpretation. The defining episode for the poor white's realization of race and class continues to be Sutpen's epiphany in Absalom, Absalom! after he is turned away, pointedly classified, by the well-dressed doorkeeper of a Tidewater residence and sent to the back door.
16.	For important recent work that analyzes race and class through the transformative lens of the affections, see Carina Evan's book manuscript in progress, Loving Blackness: The Neo-Slave Narrative and Contemporary Revisions of Slavery, completed as a dissertation in the English Department of the University of California, Santa Barbara, 2009. It was my privilege not just to read Evan's work but also to have extensive conversations with her as she was developing her thesis.
17.	André Bleikasten, The Ink of Melancholy: Faulkner's Novels from The Sound and the Fury to Light in August (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 280. As Bleikasten continues, "even though the poet speaks to the urn and allows the urn to speak in the final two lines, Keats' ode is on, not to, a Grecian urn. Like Homer's famous description of the shield of Achilles, it is an ekphrasis, a verbal transposition of a plastic work of art, a word-shaper's tribute to a sculptor of marble in the ut pictura poesis tradition" (280).
18.	For more on Hollywood's deployment of the trope of the "Old South," see Ida Jeter's "Jezebel and the Emergence of the Hollywood Tradition of a Decadent South," The Southern Quarterly: A Journal of the Arts in the South 19, nos. 3–4 (Spring–Summer 1981), 31–46.
19.	Faulkner's As I Lay Dying (1931) was compared unfavorably to Erskine Caldwell's salaciously saleable depiction of southern poverty in Tobacco Road (1932), which devoted part of its mélange to the potential uplift for blacks and well as whites in the form of agricultural cooperatives. Caldwell, author of some twenty-five novels, only five of which were published in the 1930s, produced twenty novels in the 1940s.
20.	At the 1998 Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha Conference ("Faulkner in America"), Trudier Harris gave a talk on Andrew's trilogy and his creation of an African American Yoknapatawpha in Georgia.
21.	For a telling article that considers ethnicity and race in relation to "Southern Literature" as a concept, see Goto Kazuhko, "William Faulkner and Southern Literature in the Postmodern Era," Faulkner Journal of Japan 1 (May 1999), http://www.faulknerjapan.com/journal/No1/GotoRevd.htm. As Goto argues in relation to southern identity: "This intense historical sensitivity of the Southerners has formulated what is more than a regional peculiarity; it is something very close to 'ethnicity.'" Linking the multiple narrators of Gaines's A Gathering of Old Men to Faulkner's fifteen narrators of As I Lay Dying, Goto underlines the bonds forged by men (Gaines's characters) who "have shared the same fate." In Goto's view, Gaines's novel reveals a "literature of the ethnic solidarity bred through the history of oppression and discrimination, supported by the network of the traditional manners knitting up each and every niche of life and always reminding the members of the community of its historical fate [that] should be discussed not in the context of Southern literature but in that of the African American literature." Goto acknowledges the fact that "this novel by Gaines freely exploits . . . Faulkner's methods with success." The most extensive analysis linking Gaines's fictional world to Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha is Michel Fabre's "Bayonne or the Yoknapatawpha of Ernest Gaines," Callaloo 1 (1978), 110–124. Outside of the interest (antipathetic and otherwise) shown in the Americas, French and Japanese intellectuals have developed the most insightful critical communities concerned with and contributing to the growth of Faulkner studies.
22.	For innovative and insightful work comparing these fictional worlds created in English, Spanish, and Brazilian Portuguese, see Paulo da-Luz-Moreira, "Regionalism and Modernism in the Short Stories of William Faulkner, João Guimarães Rosa, and Juan Rulfo" (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2007). My conversations with da-Luz-Moreira have proved invaluable in understanding the place of dialect, class, and race in relation to the diverse but deeply historically, culturally, and aesthetically connected inland modernisms of the Americas. As Rodrigo Bauer has emphasized in his conversations with me, whatever else this text may convey, a translation of As I Lay Dying that does not include the shifts into italics cannot have begun to understand the novel's shifts of time and levels in unconsciousness thought, much less the even more subtle alterations in who is speaking that are a primary focus of The Signifying Eye's chapter 3.
23.	While this word is used in English, its use is not considered acceptable in modern Japan. The Burakumin are thought of as village or rural people who have inherited a caste condition that is deeply reviled and entrenched through their families' inherited fate to deal with death, the dead, and the dying. This group includes those in charge of killing in executions as well as those charged with the laying away of the dead, slaughtering animals for meat, and processing animal skins for leather. Nakagami gained access to literacy as a result of the post–World War II law that required that all Japanese children be educated.
24.	For this and other important insights, see Kato Yuji, "'The Luxuriating South,' William Faulkner and Gabriel Garcia Marquez: Voices, Narrations, and the Place of Existence," Faulkner Journal of Japan 1 (May 1999), http://www.faulknerjapan.com/journal/No1/kato.htm.
25.	For a revelatory and detailed analysis that is only summarized here, see McKnight, "Crypticism, or Nakagami Kenji's Transplanted Faulkner."

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