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Southern Spaces

A journal about real and imagined spaces and places of the US South and their global connections

Still Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease

...monthly payments can mean the difference between destitution and modest survival.4This estimate of the number of black lung beneficiaries is extrapolated from data on the number of claims filed each...

Religion and the US South

...were from the Iberian Peninsula, with those from central Europe coming in larger numbers after 1840. They embraced the religious freedom that the nation offered, as well as its economic...

The Making of the Arkansas Cemetery Angel: AIDS Activism, Care Work, and Fragmentary Archives in the Life of Ruth Coker Burks

...whom she cared, the number of gravesites at the Files Cemetery, and her contested ownership of the cemetery.7Alexander Kacala, “Doubts Surround Viral Story of ‘AIDS Angel’ Who Says She Helped...

Lift Every Voice and Sing: The Quilts of Gwendolyn Ann Magee

...with her adoptive mother, schoolteacher Annie Lee Jones.3Roland Freeman, "Journey of the Spirit: The Art of Gwendolyn A. Magee," in Barilleaux, Journey of the Spirit. Fascinated with color, Magee recalled trying...

Mapping the Muggleheads: New Orleans and the Marijuana Menace, 1920–1930

...developments that led to federal marijuana legislation in 1937.4For prominent examples, see Howard Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963); Alfred Ray Lindesmith, The...

Reframing Resistance: A Review of Freedom Now!

...photographs. No image became more iconic, no place more marked by photographs than Birmingham in the days of Bull Connor's hoses and dogs. Martin A. Berger's fine book, Freedom Now! Forgotten...

Scales of Slavery on the Mason-Dixon Line: A Review of Gleanings of Freedom

Review Max Grivno's subtle and remarkably textured history of labor in northern Maryland and southern Pennsylvania, Gleanings of Freedom: Free and Slave Labor along the Mason Dixon Line, 1790–1860, details...

Cruising Grounds: Seeking Sex and Claiming Place in Houston, 1960–1980

...Pride Houston. There were two queer bookstores, a free monthly magazine, and several free weekly papers. Soon, I was working for one of those papers, distributing copies all over the...

Hoboken Style: Meaning and Change in Okefenokee Sacred Harp Singing

...line, a significant number for such a rural area. The ultra-conservative Crawfordites sought to continue most practices “as in the time of Uncle Reuben.” Since their formation in the 1870s,...

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References
1.	Silas Lee chose three songs which he likely thought would be accessible to the festival audience: “Murillo’s Lesson” (#358, a secular song with text dating to the late 1700s), “Coronation” (#63, found in many Protestant hymnals as “All Hail the Power of Jesus Name”), and “Firm Foundation” (#72, also found in Protestant hymnals), during which Lee invited the audience to join in.
2.	Kiri Miller, Traveling Home, Sacred Harp Singing and American Pluralism, University of Illinois Press, 2008, 102. Miller’s book, which includes a substantive discussion of the Lee family, offers the “Sacred Harp Diaspora,” a concept of “the phenomenon of the Sacred Harp conventions that draws many travelers from far-off places rather than the local singing in an isolated area where most participants are related by blood or marriage” (page 28). I use the term “Sacred Harp network,” after Dorothy Noyes’ reformulation of the term “folk group” under the rubric of social network theory, to distinguish singers whose connection to each other is based solely on Sacred Harp as a hobby or avocation, as opposed to the deep-seated, multifaceted community ties which characterize singers in southeast Georgia and northeast Florida. Noyes suggests replacing the much overused concept of “community” with “dense multiplex network characterized by frequent interaction, a high degree of solidarity, and an equally high degree of social control.” Perhaps I am a victim of the nostalgic postmodern longing for community, but, at least for the historical period through WWII, community does seem more applicable here. I use it to describe a stable cluster of neighbors, family members, and brothers-and sisters in faith that sustained Sacred Harp and hymnody for a century within one of the more isolated regions in the Deep South (see Dorothy Noyes, “Group,” Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 108/430 (Fall 1995): 449-478).
3.	I use the term “sing” as they do in southeast Georgia and northeast Florida, as opposed to the more common term “singing” used most other places.
4.	Miller, 2008, 102.
5.	Johnny Lee, remarks at Silas Lee Memorial Sing, Florida Folk Festival, White Springs, 28 May 2000.
6.	The term “Hoboken-style” is a term outsiders and scholars use to describe the distinctive stylistic features and performance practices of the Okefenokee region, especially as it pertains to the Lee Family of southeast Georgia and the community singing tradition centered in Hoboken, Brantley County, Georgia. This is not a term local singers from the region use to describe their tradition, although—as described in this essay—some local singers have become quite skilled at describing and demonstrating their singing tradition to outsiders. By using the term “Hoboken-style” I do not mean to limit this discussion to one community. As I illustrate in the essay, this is a regional tradition found in both southeast Georgia and northeast Florida.
7.	David I. Lee, singing school remarks, Florida Folk Festival, White Springs, 28 May 2000. David Lee has become the primary public speaker for the public face of Hoboken-style singing. Most of the interview excerpts in this article are his, but the research behind the article encompassed many other voices and viewpoints. The song leaders and singing school teachers in this tradition, however, always played central shaping roles, and David Lee is an extremely eloquent example.
8.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
9.	John Crowley, Primitive Baptists of the Wiregrass South, 99-105. Increasingly after the Civil War African Americans formed separate Primitive Baptist Associations.
10.	Francis Harper and Delma Presley, Okefinokee Album, Georgia Press, 1981, 24.
11.	Francis Harper, Special Collections, Zach S. Henderson Library, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA (photos) and American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, Francis Harper, Folk Music of the Okefenokee Swamp Region of Georgia, 1944. AFS 7721-7737 (sound recordings).
12.	Francis Harper and Delma E. Presley, Okefinokee Album. University of Georgia Press, 1981, 29.
13.	John G. Crowley, Primitive Baptists of the Wiregrass South, University Press of Florida, 1998, 23.
14.	The term “Wiregrass South” is an historic designation to refer to areas where the settlement pattern and resulting culture have been shaped by the wiregrass and longleaf pine ecosystem. Here I use it as John Crowley does in Primitive Baptists of the Wiregrass South to refer to south Georgia and north Florida in particular.
15.	Crowley, 109.
16.	Beverly Patterson. The Sound of the Dove: Singing in Appalachian Primitive Baptist Churches. University of Illinois Press, 1995, 166-167.
17.	John Bealle, Sweet is the Day, a Sacred Harp Family Portrait: A Guide to the FIlm. Alabama Folklife Association, 2001, 31.
18.	Crowley, 178.
19.	Joyce Cauthen, ed. Benjamin Lloyd’s Hymn Book, A Primitive Baptist Song Tradition. Montgomery, AL: Alabama Folklife Association, 1999, 92.
20.	David I. Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 July 2000.
21.	Silas Lee, however, recalled using various books during his long career as a song leader and singing school teacher in southeast Georgia and northeast Florida. In addition, many songs were sung orally, “handed down to us by inspired men of old,” as stated in the preface to The Pilgrim’s Harp, also known simply as “the brown book,” a self-published compilation of words and tunes to locally sung old favorites by David and Clarke Lee of Hoboken, and Phillip Reeves of Callahan, Florida. The Pilgrim’s Harp compilers traced these songs and texts to various shape-note songsters and hymnals, among them Georgia-originated four-shape books such as The Social Harp, by John G. McCurry (1855); revisions and older editions to The Sacred Harp; classic four-shape books such as William Walker’s Southern Harmony (1854), the most popular shape-note tune book of the nineteenth century; and seven-shape compilations used for their words only, since local singers could not read seven-shape notation: the Southern Baptist Broadman Hymnal (1940), Stamp’s Baxter’s Favorite Songs and Hymns, Primitive Baptist hymnals such as The Good Old Songs: The Cream of the Old Music, compiled by Elder C. H. Cayce, and The Harp of Ages (1925). The Pilgrim Harp source material illustrates both the variety of hymnals and shape-note books influencing Okefenokee region singing, and the pervasive oral circulation of tunes popular along the Georgia/Florida state line which had been compiled into various published collections. Even though religious beliefs of Crawfordite singers encouraged cultural isolation, other books and tunes entered the tradition.
22.	Delorese Conner Lee, phone interview by Laurie Kay Sommers, 8 July 2009.
23.	David I. Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 July 2000.
24.	David I. Lee, 15 July 2000.
25.	Brantley Enterprise, “Lee’s life entwined with the Sacred Harp,” 11 December 1996.
26.	Brantley Enterprise, 11 December 1996.
27.	Puckett, Martha Mizell. Snow White Sands, Occasional Papers, South Georgia College, Douglas, 1975, 1978, page 95.
28.	Puckett, 94, and Lottie Lee Carter, Interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 10 May 2001.
29.	David I. Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 July 2000.
30.	Warren P. Ward, History of Coffee County. Spartanburg, South Carolina. The Reprint Company Publishers, 1978, 122.
31.	Among Wiregrass Singers, individual leaders accentuate “the rhythmic structure of the song by including heavy-footed swaying, with intermediary beats shown through a slight bounce after each main step.” (Doris J. Dyen, “The Role of Shape-Note Singing in the Musical Culture of Black Communities in Southeast Alabama.” PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977, 292).
32.	Doris Dyen, electronic mail correspondence with Laurie Kay Sommers, 4 June 2010.
33.	Variants of the drone tradition are documented among the Old Harp Singers of Tennessee, Sacred Harp singers of central and north Mississippi—where the special drone song “Travelling to the Grave” has closed several recent Mississippi State Conventions—and among Old Regular Baptist hymn singers in Kentucky. The Old Harp tradition appears most similar to Hoboken, with “a quartet singing a lesson of four parts in the middle of the class, [while] the rest of the class would get up, hold the starting chord and march around the room in time to the music while keeping that chord.” (Larry Olszewski email to Laurie Kay Sommers on the Old Harp drone, 14 February 2002; Karen Willard, email to Laurie Kay Sommers on the Mississippi drone, 13 February 2002; Nicholas Pasqual, email to Laurie Kay Sommers, 16 February 2002 on Kentucky folk singer Jean Ritchie’s remembrance of an Old Regular Baptist drone in the liner notes to her LP Sweet Rivers.)
34.	Beginning in 1996, after their “discovery” of and by the national Sacred Harp network, members of the Lee family were invited to give special singing schools on Hoboken-style where they taught and demonstrated the drone. In January 2001, I requested a drone in Hoboken so I could film the event. The last previous Hoboken drone was held in 1984.
35.	Lottie Lee Carter, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 10 May 2001, recalls drones of the 1920s in Martin Dowling’s singing schools which sound quite similar to present-day Hoboken drones.
36.	Johnny Lee, email to Laurie Kay Sommers, 14 October 1999.
37.	Clarke Lee, Letter to Steven Levine, 10 March 1996.
38.	John Bealle, Public Worship, Private Faith: Sacred Harp and American Folksong. University of Georgia Press, 1997, 215.
39.	David I. Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 July 2000.
40.	John Crowley, “The Sacred Harp Controversy in the Original Alabaha Primitive Baptist Association.” The Baptist Studies Bulletin (Mercer University), Volume 3, no. 7 (July 2004).
41.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
42.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, 15 February 1997.
43.	Crawfordites still do not allow recordings in the meeting house, so I infer historic connections from attendance at contemporary Crawfordite singings.
44.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997. Ornaments per se are not unique to Hoboken. In his seminal publication, The Sacred Harp: A Tradition and Its Music, Buell Cobb elaborates on George Pullen Jackson’s earlier comments about ornamentation and the role of oral tradition in Sacred Harp. The most common ornaments are anticipations, passing tones, and “the optional flourishes which garland the central notes of the melody.” These types of ornaments characterize southeast Georgia and northeast Florida Sacred Harp, but use of ornamentation here was far more pervasive and integral to vocal practice. Writing in the 1960s and 1970s, Cobb observed that ornamentation was more evident in the singing of black Sacred Harp singers, who were more influenced by the improvisatory traditions of the African Diaspora. At the time, however, Cobb was unaware of the white tradition of the Okefenokee region and the extent to which Primitive Baptist hymnody had shaped its Sacred Harp performance practices, and vice versa.
45.	How then, did a group of these singers end up at the 1958-59 Florida Folk Festival? The link may be Hoboken School, where Silas Lee and Superintendent Herschel Herrin had recently established a monthly community Sacred Harp sing. The Hoboken School Glee Club and barbershop quartet also performed at FFF, so perhaps the teacher, Miss Griffin, mentioned the local Sacred Harp to FFF organizer Thelma Boulton. According to Tollie Lee, Griffin and Silas Lee became close friends after the second FFF, and Griffin became a regular participant in the Hoboken School Sacred Harp sings. Superintendent Herrin accompanied the groups to FFF, and might have been the point person as well.
46.	Delorese Conner Lee, phone interview by Laurie Kay Sommers, 15 July 2009.
47.	Wilson Wainright, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Nahunta, GA, 4 September 2003.
48.	David I. Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 July 2000.
49.	John G. Crowley, Primitive Baptists of the Wiregrass South, University Press of Florida, 1998, 163.
50.	Stephen A. Marini, Sacred Song in America: Religion, Music, and Public Culture, University of Illinois Press, 2003, 90.
51.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
52.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
53.	David Lee, personal communication, reported in Kiri Miller, Traveling Home: Sacred Harp Singing and American Pluralism, University of Illinois Press, 2008, 101.
54.	Murphree, Wayne. Hoboken in Seattle (video), Wayne Murphree Enterprises, Flat Rock, Alabama, 12 February 1998
55.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
56.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, 15 February 1997.
57.	The tape originally was given by a family member to John Garst, one of his professors at the University of Georgia and co-editor of The Social Harp.
58.	Keith Willard, liner notes to "Sacred Harp Hoboken, Georgia, 1996" (CD), 1999.
59.	Johnny Lee, Electronic mail correspondence with Laurie Kay Sommers, 14 October 1999.
60.	Minutes of the One Hundred and Fifty-Fourth Annual Session of the Alabaha River Primitive Baptist Association held with Oak Grove Church, Brantley County, Georgia, 12-14 October 1996.
61.	Crowley makes a similar point in “The Sacred Harp Controversy in the Original Alabaha Primitive Baptist Association.” The Baptist Studies Bulletin (Mercer University), Volume 3, no. 7 (July 2004).
62.	Wilson Wainright, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Nahunta, Georgia, 4 September 2003.
63.	Kiri Miller, Traveling Home: Sacred Harp Singing and American Pluralism, University of Illinois Press, 2008, 102.
64.	The Lees' profound sense of spirituality goes far beyond opening and closing a sing with prayer, common practice throughout the Sacred Harp network. Rather, they eloquently speak about spirituality as “Why we sing” and share this view at singing schools they have led across the country. They feel that their views have changed the feeling and meaning of some out-of-region sings from emphasis on fellowship and expressions of Americana to a more deeply felt spiritual event.
65.	D. Johnny Lee, electronic mail correspondence with Laurie Kay Sommers, 14 October 1999.
66.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
67.	D. Johnny Lee, electronic mail correspondence with Laurie Kay Sommers, 14 October 1999.
68.	David I. Lee and Clarke Lee, interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 February 1997.
69.	Clarke Lee, stage remarks, Florida Folk Festival, 28 May 2000.
70.	David I. Lee interviewed by Laurie Kay Sommers, Hoboken, GA, 15 July 2000.
71.	Brantley Enterprise, “Lee’s life entwined with the Sacred Harp.” 11 December 1996.
72.	Mars Hill is a “Bennettite” church, referring to the faction of the Alabaha River Association that split from the Crawfordites during the homestead controversy in the nineteenth century and followed elder Richard Bennett.
73.	Both signs and curriculum are initiatives of retired Waycross, Georgia music educator, Willie Character.
74.	David I. Lee, remarks from the stage of the Florida Folk Festival, 28 May 2000.