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Southern Spaces

A journal about real and imagined spaces and places of the US South and their global connections

Starlit Screens: Preserving Place and Public at Drive-In Theaters

...a growing interest not just in maintaining existing theaters, but in constructing new ones.7"Drive-in Theater Search," Drive-ins.com, http://drive-ins.com/srchdest.htm?name=&city=&code=al&status_op=open&search.x=13&search.y=12. Six of Alabama's ten drive-ins opened since 1996.8Calvin R. Trice, "Couple seek...

The Countryside Transformed: The Eastern Shore of Virginia, the Pennsylvania Railroad, and the Creation of a Modern Landscape

...Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 170. For antebellum Eastern Shore agriculture see "Sketch of a Hasty View...

Bioregional Approach to Southern History: The Yazoo-Mississippi Delta

...remained furthermore insignificant in relation to deforestation in the bottomlands. It was mostly the vicinity of scattered Indian villages on natural levees that became a patchy landscape of fields, grasslands...

Rethinking the Geography of Lynching

Review "Lynching of Negroes is growing to be a southern pastime," declared the Reverend D. A. Graham of the A.M.E. church in a sermon preached in Indianapolis, Indiana, as part...

The Podcast and the Police: S‑Town and the Narrative Form of Southern Queerness

...visible intervention or investigation is required. When the disciplinary structures of society seem most invisible, we liberal subjects feel like we're free of them. In S-Town, following McLemore's lead, Reed...

African American Community Building in Atlanta: A Guide to the Study of Race in America

...political, social, and economic relationships evolved following emancipation. What had been clearly ordered in slavery in an agricultural economy was subverted by freedom in the city. Atlanta is a case...

Crosses, Flowers, and Asphalt: Roadside Memorials in the US South

...dirt track racers defying death in stripped-down vehicles with high performance engines, the glitz and product promotion of modern day NASCAR, and the window-tinted, stretch-limo world of rap culture. Country...

Rereading Local Color: Bill Hardwig's Upon Provincialism

...Chesnutt and Murfree as a black man and a white woman. (Chesnutt, a light skinned African American, was often assumed to be a white writer. Murfree published her early fiction...

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References
1.	Buenaventura Lakes is a Census Designated Place (CDP), identified by the US Census Bureau. CDP's lack separate municipal governments. Osceola County is one of four counties located in the Orlando-Kissimmee-Sanford Metropolitan Statistical Area or "Greater Orlando."
2.	Poodlestix, original post on "Lakeside subdivision in Buena Ventura Lakes? (Kissimmee: house, neighborhood, income)," City-Data.com, June 17, 2008, http://www.city-data.com/forum/orlando/356547-lakeside-subdivision-buena-ventura-lakes.html. I have not corrected the grammar nor altered the language in any of the following Internet transcripts.
3.	In Long Island one immigrant or family rents a residential space, and then rents spaces within the home to several people. This system of renting rooms is a way of making money in a low-wage economy, a strategy for paying the mortgage or rent, and a form of entrepreneurship. See Sarah J. Mahler, American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
4.	Jane Hill, "Language, Race, and White Public Space," American Anthropologist 100, no. 3 (1999): 790.
5.	Judith T. Irvine, "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy," American Ethnologist 16, no. 2 (1989): 255.
6.	Alan Rumsey, "Wording, Meaning, and Linguistic Ideology," American Anthropologist 92, no. 2 (1990): 346–361; Kathryn A. Woolard and Bambi B. Schieffelin, "Language Ideology," Annual Review of Anthropology 23 (1994): 55–82.
7.	Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s (New York: Routledge, 1986).
8.	Jose Cobas, Jorge Duany, and Joe Feagin, "Introduction," in How the United States Racializes Latinos: White Hegemony and Its Consequences, John Cobas, Jorge Duany, and Joe Feagin, eds. (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2009), 1.
9.	Ibid.
10.	Sharon Ennis, Merarys Rios-Vargas, and Norma Albert, "The Hispanic Population: 2010, US Census Reports," accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf.
11.	Christina Burnett and Burke Marshall, eds. Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).
12.	Helen M. Strauch, "The Compelling Influence of Nonlinguistic Aims in Language Status Policy Planning in Puerto Rico," Working Papers in Educational Linguistics 8, no. 2 (Fall 1992): 107–131, http://www.gse.upenn.edu/wpel/sites/gse.upenn.edu.wpel/files/archives/v8/v8n2_strauch.pdf.
13.	Robert L. Cooper, Language Planning and Social Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 35.
14.	Edith Algren de Gutiérrez, The Movement Against Teaching English in the Schools of Puerto Rico, (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987), 105.
15.	Ofelia Garcia, "Racializing the Language Practices of U.S. Latinos: Impact on Their Education," in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 101–115.
16.	For a discussion of the racialization of Puerto Ricans see Lorrin Thomas, Puerto Rican Citizen: History and Political Identity in Twentieth Century New York City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); Juan Flores, From Bomba to Hip-Hop: Puerto Rican Culture and Latino Identity (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); and Arlene Dávila and Augistín Laó-Montes, eds., Mambo Montage: The Latinization of New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001).
17.	Ana Ramos-Zayas, National Performances: The Politics of Class, Race, and Space in Puerto Rico Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).
18.	Eileen Findlay, "Slipping and Sliding: The Many Meanings of Race in Life Histories of New York Puerto Rican Return Migrants in San Juan," Centro Journal 24, no. 1 (2012): 38.
19.	Ibid., 27.
20.	Fernando Purcell, "Becoming Dark: The Chilean Experience in California, 1848–1870," in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 54–67.
21.	Zulema Valdez, "Agency and Structure in Panethnic Identity Formation: The Case of Latino/a Entrepreneurs," in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 200–213.
22.	Rubén Rumbaut, "Pigments of Our Imagination: On the Racialization and Racial Identities of 'Hispanics' and 'Latinos,'" in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 23.
23.	Ibid.
24.	Grace Flores-Hughes, A Tale of Survival: Memoir of an Hispanic Woman (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011).
25.	Suzanne Obler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: Identity and the Politics of (Re)Presentation in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
26.	Paul Taylor, Mark Hugo Lopez, Jessica Martínez, and Gabriel Velasco, "When Labels Don't Fit: Hispanics and Their Views of Identity," Pew Research Hispanic Trends Project, April 4, 2012, accessed November 9, 2013, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/04/when-labels-dont-fit-hispanics-and-their-views-of-identity/.
27.	These include the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce of Metro Orlando, Hispanic Bar Association of Central Florida, Hispanic Business Initiative Fund (HBIF), Hispanic Young Professionals & Entrepreneurs (HYPE), and Hispanosphere blog (http://www.orlandosentinel.com/elsentinel/blogs/hispanosphere/).
28.	"Grace Flores-Hughes Interview—She Made 'Hispanic' Official," The Washington Post, July 26, 2009, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/24/AR2009072402091.html.
29.	The term Nuyorican is used to refer to members of the Puerto Rican diaspora and differentiates those born on the island of Puerto Rico; however, the term often carries a negative connotation and implies a lack of cultural capital, ignorance of island life, and a lower social class status.
30.	Osceola County Public Information Office, "Citizen's Handbook: Honoring the Past, Shaping the Future," Osceola County Government, 1, http://www.osceola.org/Files/Websites/press_room/00000000_Imported/2008CitizenHanbdookHiRes.pdf.
31.	Jorge Duany, "The Orlando Ricans: Overlapping Identity Discourses Among Middle-Class Puerto Rican Immigrants," Centro Journal 22, no. 1 (Spring 2010): 3.
32.	In 1980, Puerto Rican households had the lowest national homeownership rate (21 percent) compared to Cuban (44 percent), Mexican (50 percent), and other Hispanic households (46 percent). The national Puerto Rican homeownership rate increased to 25 percent in 1990 and 34.9 percent in 2000. The homeownership rate amongst Puerto Ricans in Florida (56 percent) is significantly higher than national averages. See Alvaro Cortes, Christopher E. Herbert, Erin Wilson, and Elizabeth Clay, Improving Homeownership Opportunities for Hispanic Families: A Review of the Literature, (Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates Inc., 2006), http://www.huduser.org/Publications/PDF/hisp_homeown1.pdf.
33.	Sean Holton, "Many Seek A New Life In Orlando," Orlando Sentinel, November 14, 1993.
34.	Between the early sixteenth century and late nineteenth century Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony. The island was annexed to the United States in 1898 following the Spanish–American War. Puerto Rico is neither a state nor an independent country, but a commonwealth associated with the United States. The island has an elected governor and legislature, but no voting representatives in Congress. Additionally, residents of Puerto Rico may not vote in national elections and are exempt from federal taxes.
35.	Virginia Sanchez Korrol, From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1917–1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
36.	Teresa Whalen and Victor Vazquez-Hernandez, eds., The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2005).
37.	Francisco Rivera-Batiz and Carlos Santiago, Island Paradox: Puerto Rico in the 1990s (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1996), 12. Harvey S. Perloff, Puerto Rico's Economic Future: A Study of Planned Development, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950).
38.	Julio Morales, Puerto Rican Poverty and Migration: We Just Had to Try Elsewhere (New York: Praeger, 1986), 35.
39.	Korrol, From Colonia to Community: the History of Puerto Ricans in New York City.
40.	Victor Manuel Ramos, "1986: Couple escape New York for Central Florida retirement," Orlando Sentinel, February 5, 2006.
41.	Ibid.
42.	Victor Manuel Ramos, "Between 2 Worlds: Puerto Ricans remember roots as they sink new ones," Orlando Sentinel, February 5, 2006.
43.	Ibid.
44.	Phil Fernandez, "Family Born In America, Still Faithful To Puerto Rican Roots," Orlando Sentinel, May 12, 1991.
45.	"Mexican Millionaires Build City: Mickey Mouse Gets Neighbors," Fort Lauderdale News and Sun-Sentinel, November 23, 1974.
46.	During the 1970s economic activity in Mexico fluctuated with spurts of rapid growth followed by depressions in 1976 and 1982. President Luis Echeverría Álvarez's (1970–1976) leftist rhetoric and actions—for instance his support of illegal land seizures by peasants—diminished the confidence of investors and alienated private sector developers. The economic crisis—falling oil prices, higher world interest rates, rising inflation, the overvaluation of the peso, and the deterioration of the balance of payment accounts (BOP)—continued into the 1980s, and resulted in massive capital flight. In August of 1982 President José López Portillo y Pacheco (1976–1982) declared an involuntary moratorium on debt payments, and announced the nationalization of the private banking system a month later.
47.	Harry Straight, "Landstar lures northern buyers," This Week, February 11, 1979.
48.	Phil Fernandez and John Conway, "Osceola Hispanics Blend of Cultures, Traditions, Food," Orlando Sentinel, May 14, 1991.
49.	"Boricua" is a term used to describe Puerto Ricans, and is derived from the indigenous Taíno population's name for the island: Borikén.
50.	Luis Martinez-Fernandez, "Orlando Develops Hispanic Accent," Orlando Sentinel, July 26, 2005; Victor Manuel Ramos, "Latinos at the Helm of Orlando's Public Broadcasting," Orlando Sentinel, December 11, 2008; Luis Martinez-Fernandez, "Ever Wonder Why ATMs in Central Florida Speak Spanish?" Orlando Sentinel, January 1, 2007; Victor Manuel Ramos, "Seminole to Offer Ballots in Spanish," Orlando Sentinel, February 10, 2009; Kelly Brewington, "A New Home: One of Every Three Puerto Ricans in the State Calls Central Florida Home, Giving the Region A Bilingual Flair," Orlando Sentinel, Sunday, July 21, 2002.
51.	Phil Fernandez, "Hispanic Boom Changes The Face Of Osceola: Family takes plunge into new culture, life," Orlando Sentinel, May 12, 1991.
52.	Michael McLeod, "Diversity 101: Variety and Just a Pinch of Trouble is the Spice of Life at Gateway High School, A Cosmopolitan Enclave in the Middle of Once-rural Osceola County," Orlando Sentinel, March 13, 1994.
53.	Ibid.
54.	Fieldnotes, July 15, 2010.
55.	The written history of Florida begins in 1513 with Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish explorer from Spain. During the sixteenth century Florida was a Spanish colony, and was under colonial rule by both Spain and Great Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was not until 1822 that Florida became a US territory, and in 1845 Florida became the twenty-seventh US state. Thus, there has been a Spanish presence since the "discovery" of Florida by Europeans. In these discourses, however, Florida is constructed as a space that has always been American and English-speaking.
56.	nberry7, "moving to Kissimmee from KS?" City-Data.com Forum, November 4, 2009 , http://www.city-data.com/forum/orlando/807347-moving-kissimmee-ks.html.
57.	annerk, comment on "moving to Kissimmee from KS? (Orlando, Poinciana: foreclosures, day care, squatters)," City-Data.com, November 4, 2009, http://www.city-data.com/forum/orlando/807347-moving-kissimmee-ks.html
58.	Don macauley, comment on ibid., November 20, 2009.
59.	lifelongMOgal, comment on "moving to Kissimmee from KS? (Orlando, Sanford: real estate market, foreclosure, rentals)," City-Data.com, November 28, 2009, http://www.city-data.com/forum/orlando/807347-moving-kissimmee-ks-orlando-sanford-real-2.html.
60.	Duttgal86, comment on ibid., January 2, 2010.
61.	Hxrguitar, comment on ibid., January 2, 2010.
62.	William Darity, Jason Dietrich, and Darrick Hamilton, "Bleach in the Rainbow: Latin Ethnicity and Preference for Whiteness," Transforming Anthropology 13, no. 2 (2005): 103–109.
63.	In Osceola County 30.6 percent of Hispanics identified as white, 2.2 percent as black, 9.8 percent as some other race alone, and 2.4 percent identified as two or more races. Nationally, according to the Pew Hispanic Survey, when asked to state their race 36 percent of Hispanics called themselves white, 26 percent said they are "some other race," and another 25 percent claimed they are Hispanic or Latino, even though the government does not consider these labels to connote a racial group, but rather an ethnic group.
64.	Rumbaut, "Pigments of Our Imagination," 29.
65.	Helen Marrow, "New Immigrant Destinations and the American Colour Line," Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32, no. 6 (2009): 1044.
66.	See Ramos-Zayas, National Performances, and Christina Burnett and Burke Marshall, eds., Foreign in a Domestic Sense.
67.	Victor Manuel Ramos, "Congressman Grayson Gets Funding for Latino Projects," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, December 21, 2009, accessed May 24, 2010, http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_hispanicaffairs/2009/12/orlando-congressman-alan-grayson-gets-funding-for-latino-projects.html.
68.	Publius, comment on, "Congressman Grayson Gets Funding for Latino Projects," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, December 21, 2009, accessed May 24, 2010, http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_hispanicaffairs/2009/12/orlando-congressman-alan-grayson-gets-funding-for-latino-projects.html.
69.	Tom Thornburg, comment on "Congressman Grayson Gets Funding for Latino Projects," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, December 22, 2009, accessed May 24, 2010, http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_hispanicaffairs/2009/12/orlando-congressman-alan-grayson-gets-funding-for-latino-projects.html.
70.	tim, comment on "Congressman Grayson Gets Funding for Latino Projects," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, December 22, 2009, accessed May 24, 2010, http://blogsorlandosentinel.com/news_hispanicaffairs/2009/12/orlando-congressman-alan-grayson-gets-funding-for-latino-projects.html.
71.	poor taxpayer, comment on "Congressman Grayson Gets Funding for Latino Projects," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, December 22, 2009, accessed May 24, 2010, http://blogsorlandosentinel.com/news_hispanicaffairs/2009/12/orlando-congressman-alan-grayson-gets-funding-for-latino-projects.html.
72.	Bonnie Urciuoli, Exposing Prejudice: Puerto Rican Experiences of Language, Race, and Class (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 2.
73.	Jeannette Rivera-Lyles, "Hispanics Gather in Park to Defend 65th Infantry," Orlando Sentinel, May 3, 2011.
74.	Curiouser, comment on "Don't Trash Historic Puerto Rican Regiment," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, April 25, 2011, accessed April 27, 2011, http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/local/osceola/os-ed-darryl-owens-65th-infantry-042320110423,0,7289179.column.
75.	Victor Manuel Ramos, "Workforce Central Florida had an English-only policy," Orlando Sentinel Hispanosphere, October 5, 2011.
76.	Ibid.
77.	Elizabeth Aranda and Guillermo Rebollo-Gil, "Ethnoracism and the "Sandwiched Minorities," American Behavioral Scientist 47, no. 7 (2004): 910–927.
78.	Ennis, Ríos-Vargas, and Albert, "The Hispanic Population: 2010," United States Census Bureau, May 2011, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf. "An Older and More Diverse Nation by Midcentury," United States Census Bureau, August 14, 2008, accessed May 3, 2013, http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb08-123.html.