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Southern Spaces

A journal about real and imagined spaces and places of the US South and their global connections

Readership Reports and the Benefits of Open Access Publishing

...and visits from Google Analytics for each Southern Spaces publication. We sent each author an email to pass this information along. In past years we have drawn on Google Analytics...

The Color of Democracy: A Japanese Public Health Official’s Reconnaissance Trip to the US South

...many US officials were aware of those numbers. Nonetheless, US leaders who visited postwar Japan retained the impression that masses of people who were poorly dressed and homeless, including orphans...

Low-Wage Legacies, Race, and the Golden Chicken in Mississippi: Where Contemporary Immigration Meets African American Labor History

...that white workers increasingly found new opportunities elsewhere, chicken plants faced an ever mounting need for cheap labor. Mississipi's method, pamphlet, n.d. Courtesy of the Mississippi Department of Archives and...

Unearthing the Weeping Time: Savannah's Ten Broeck Race Course and 1859 Slave Sale

...venue to the "Race Course," and reduced the number of persons for sale: Joseph Bryan’s Advertisements for the “Sale of Slaves”, The Savannah Daily Morning News, February 27, 1859. Mortimer...

Walking into History: The Beginning of School Desegregation in Nashville

...and similarly split districts in surrounding Davidson County, under Superintendent J. E. Moss. In round numbers, there were about ten thousand black students and twenty thousand whites in the city...

North Carolina: A State of Shock

...of Elections and Google Maps. 2009 (top) and 2011 (bottom) North Carolina House district maps. Map by the North Carolina State Board of Elections and Google Maps. Pope's influence...

Atlanta's Charis Books and More: Histories of a Feminist Space

...were few established businesses, mainstream organizations or tradition-minded civic leaders around. There were, however, plenty of cheap rental properties available and an "anything is possible" view of the future.6According to...

Global Lives, Local Struggles: Latin American Immigrants in Atlanta

Photograph of Rosa, Miguel and their son. Global Lives, Local Struggles (Documentary footage used in this essay was provided by William Brown, Director, Living Across Borders.) Part 2: Dr. Odem describes...

The Pursuit of Health: Colonialism and Hookworm Eradication in Puerto Rico

...Bailey K. Ashford immortalized his first hookworm patients in a photograph. The caption reads: "Photograph of a number of natives of Puerto Rico, showing pernicious anemia due to Ankylostoma duodenale."...

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References
1.	The broad term "peasant" includes the diverse farmers and laborers of Puerto Rico's mountainous coffee region. This operational definition is not meant to override social and property distinctions within the region. See Sidney Mintz, "A Note on the Definition of Peasantries," Journal of Peasant Studies 1 (1973): 91–106. See also Frederick Cooper, Allen F. Isaacman, Florencia E. Mallon, William Roseberry, and Steve J. Stern, Confronting Historical Paradigms: Peasants, Labor, and the Capitalist World System in Africa and Latin America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993).
2.	Bailey K. Ashford, A Soldier in Science: The Autobiography of Bailey K. Ashford (San Juan: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1998 [1934]), 3.
3.	Ibid., 5.
4.	William H. Hunt, Message of the Honorable William H. Hunt to the Second Legislative Assembly (San Juan: Bureau of Printing and Supplies, 1904), 20–21.
5.	One notable exception is Nicole Trujillo-Pagán, Modern Colonization by Medical Intervention: US Medicine in Puerto Rico (Boston, MA: Brill, 2013). For hookworm disease in Puerto Rico, see Francisco A. Scarano, "Desear el jíbaro: Metáforas de la identidad puertorriqueña en la transición imperial," Illes i imperis 2 (1999): 65–74; José Quiroga, "Narrating the Tropical Pharmacy," in Puerto Rican Jam: Essays on Culture and Politics, edited by Frances Negrón-Muntaner and Ramón Grosfoguel (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 116–26; and Fernando Feliú, "Rendering the Invisible Visible and the Visible Invisible: The Colonizing Function of Bailey K. Ashford's Antianemia Campaigns," in Foucault and Latin America: Appropriations and Deployment of Discursive Analysis, edited by Benigno Trigo (New York: Routledge, 2002), 153–68. Despite its contribution, this literature focuses mostly on imperial discourses and practices, not on the popular responses to the hookworm campaign or its transnational implications.
6.	On hookworm eradication in the US South, see John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); and Matt Wray, Not Quite White: White Trash and the Boundaries of Whiteness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 96–132. On Costa Rica, see Steven Palmer, From Popular Medicine to Medical Populism: Doctors, Healers, and Public Power in Costa Rica, 1800–1940 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 155–82. On Brazil, see Gilberto Hochman, A era do saneamento: As bases da política de saúde pública no Brasil (São Paulo: Editora Hucitec, 1998). On Mexico, see Anne-Emanuelle Birn, Marriage of Convenience: Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2006), 61–116. On the Philippines, see Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 104–29.
7.	For the nomenclature dispute between Ashford and Stiles, see Ettling, Germ of Laziness, 29–33.
8.	José Rigau, "Bailey K. Ashford, más allá de sus memorias," Puerto Rico Health Sciences Journal 19, no. 1 (2000): 51–55.
9.	Paul A. Kramer, "Race, Empire, and Transnational History," in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State, edited by Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 199–209.
10.	For the interplay of elite and popular responses to the United States, see Eileen J. Suárez Findlay, Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870–1920 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), 110–34.
11.	For the coffee boom in nineteenth-century Puerto Rico, see Laird W. Bergad, Coffee and the Growth of Agrarian Capitalism in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), especially chapter 4.
12.	Irene Fernández Aponte, El cambio de soberanía en Puerto Rico: El otro '98 (Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, 1992).
13.	James J. Plorde, "Hookworms," in Sherris Medical Microbiology: An Introduction to Infectious Diseases, edited by Kenneth J. Ryan and C. George Ray (Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange, 2010), 844–46.
14.	Bailey K. Ashford and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Uncinariasis in Porto Rico: A Medical and Economic Problem (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1911), 11.
15.	On nineteenth-century charity work, see Teresita Martínez Verge, Shaping the Discourse on Space: Charity and Its Wards in Nineteenth-Century San Juan, Puerto Rico (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999).
16.	Francisco del Valle Atiles, El campesino puertorriqueño: Sus condiciones físicas, intelectuales y morales, causas que determinan y medios para mejoralas (San Juan: Tipografía de González Font, 1887), 8.
17.	See Astrid Cubano-Iguina, "Political Culture and Male Mass-Party Formation in Late-Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico," Hispanic American Historical Review 78, no. 4 (1998): 631–62.
18.	João Biehl, "The Activist State: Global Pharmaceuticals, AIDS, and Citizenship in Brazil," Social Text 22, no. 3 (2004): 105–32.
19.	On the impact of San Ciriaco, see Stuart Schwartz, "The Hurricane of San Ciriaco: Disaster, Politics, and Society in Puerto Rico, 1899–1901," Hispanic American Historical Review 72, no. 3 (1992): 303–45.
20.	Anonymous, "La invasión Yanqui," in La poesía popular en Puerto Rico, edited by María Cadilla (San Juan: Sociedad Histórica de Puerto Rico, 1999), 322.
21.	On the importance of 1898 in Puerto Rico, see Francisco A. Scarano, "Liberal Pacts and Hierarchies of Rule: Approaching the Imperial Transition in Cuba and Puerto Rico," Hispanic American Historical Review 78, no. 4 (1998): 583–602; Silvia Álvarez Curbelo, Mary Frances Gallart, and Carmen Raffucci, eds., Los arcos de la memoria: El '98 de los pueblos puertorriqueños (San Juan: Postdata, 1998); Fernando Picó, 1898: La guerra después de la guerra (Río Piedras, PR: Ediciones Huracán, 1987); and Lillian Guerra, Popular Expression and National Identity in Puerto Rico: The Struggle for Self, Community, and Nation (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998).
22.	Bailey K. Ashford, "Report to the Surgeon General," December 22, 1899, Otis Historical Archives, National Museum of Health and Medicine, RG 2.3, box 10.
23.	British physician Patrick Manson (1844–1922) published the first manual of tropical diseases in 1898. While he recognized that the term "tropical disease" defined ailments linked but not exclusively confined to the tropical latitudes, he inaugurated a new medical specialty that associated the tropics with specific diseases. See David Arnold, "'Illusory Riches': Representations of the Tropical World, 1840–1950," Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 21, no. 1 (2000): 6–18.
24.	Fawcett Smith to Charles Allen, November 26, 1900, Fondo Fortaleza, Archivo General de Puerto Rico, box 74.
25.	Bailey K. Ashford and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Summary of a Ten Years' Campaign against Hookworm Disease in Porto Rico (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1910), 3.
26.	Bailey K. Ashford and Walter W. King, "A Study of Uncinariasis in Porto Rico," American Medicine 6 (1903): 391–92.
27.	William H. Hunt to Bailey K. Ashford, October 9, 1903, Colección Ashford (hereafter CA), Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Ciencias Médicas, book 1.
28.	William C. Gorgas to Bailey K. Ashford, December 3, 1903, CA, box 6; Gorgas to Ashford, January 22, 1904, CA, box 6; Ashford to Gorgas, January 28, 1908, CA, box 6.
29.	Bailey K. Ashford, "First Announcement of the Causes of Anemia in Porto Rico to the Medical Profession of the Island," CA, box 1, document 5.
30.	Manuel Quevedo Baez to Bailey K. Ashford, December 16, 1903, CA, box 5.
31.	William P. Craighill to General O'Reilly, March 14, 1904, Papers of the Office of the Adjutant General, National Archives and Records Administration, RG 97, box 478, document 65329.
32.	On the pauperization of the Puerto Rican population, see Guerra, Popular Expression, 19–45.
33.	El heraldo español, June 15, 1904, 1, CA, box 6. Emphasis in the original. See also Bailey K. Ashford, Walter W. King, and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravídez to Beekman Winthrop, September 23, 1904, CA, box 6.
34.	See "Puertorican Labor Conditions," CA, box 6, document 175a.
35.	"Samuel Gompers Aclamado en CA, box 6, documents223a–e.
36.	Hunt, Message, 20–21.
37.	Bailey K. Ashford, Walter W. King, and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravídez to Beekman Winthrop, n.d., CA, box 1, document 132.
38.	On May 1, 1904, Agustín Stahl held a public ceremony at the Bayamón hospital to commemorate Ashford. See "Dr. Ashford Is Honored," San Juan News, May 3, 1904, 1.
39.	Ashford and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Uncinariasis in Porto Rico, 106.
40.	Bailey K. Ashford, Walter W. King, and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Report of the Commission for the Study and Treatment of "Anemia" in Porto Rico (San Juan: Bureau of Printing and Supplies, 1904), 14–15.
41.	"Comisión de la Anemia de Puerto Rico: Manera de tomar las medicinas," CA, box 5; Bailey K. Ashford, Walter W. King, and Pedro Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Preliminary Report of the Commission for the Suppression of Anemia in Porto Rico (San Juan: Bureau of Printing and Supplies, 1906), 8.
42.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Report of the Commission, 93.
43.	"Los verdaderos americanos en Puerto Rico," La democracia, August 31, 1904, 1.
44.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Report of the Commission, 14–15.
45.	Bailey K. Ashford to Agustín Stahl, April 18, 1905, CA, box 5.
46.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Report of the Commission, 100–101.
47.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Preliminary Report, 6.
48.	Ibid., 8–9.
49.	Agustín Stahl, "La uncinariasis y La Liga," Boletín de la Asociación Médica de Puerto Rico 3, no. 4 (1905): 7.
50.	"Informe del Dr. Martín O. de la Rosa a los Doctores Ashford, King y Gutiérrez, miembros de la 'Puerto Rico Anemia Commission,'" CA, box 4.
51.	Agustín Font to William H. Hunt, May 26, 1905, CA, box 4.
52.	A. H. Frazur to Alcalde de San Sebastián, June 9, 1905, CA, box 4.
53.	Francisco Sein, La anemia: Medidas que deben observarse para evitar su propagación (Lares, PR: Tipografía de Bergas, 1905), 3, 7–8.
54.	A. H. Frazur to Alcalde de Lares, June 15, 1905, box 4, CA.
55.	The other six towns that provided physicians and facilities were Barros, Coamo, Comerio, Guayama, Moca, and Utuado. List of towns, CA, box 4.
56.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Preliminary Report, 8–9.
57.	Mariano Ramirez, José Carbonell, Pedro del Valle, and González Martínez to Bailey K. Ashford, July 19, 1905, CA, box 5.
58.	"Liga de Defensa contra la Anemia," Boletín de la Asociación Médica de Puerto Rico 3, no. 32 (1905): 116–18. On August 6, 1906, league members ratified eight other articles that recommended provisions for the "most complete extirpation" of hookworm disease. Among the most relevant was the compulsory construction of outhouses in every house and provisional latrines for those working in the agricultural fields, as well as the imposition of fines on anyone who defecated on the soil.
59.	Circular no. 2398, September 25, 1905, CA, box 1.
60.	Agustín Stahl, "Difusión de la uncinaria y Liga de defensa contra la anemia," Boletín de la Asociación Médica de Puerto Rico 3, no. 5 (1905): 160.
61.	Ashford and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Summary, 14–15. According to these estimates, 300,000 persons were treated in a population of approximately 1,118,012.
62.	Bailey K. Ashford, The War on the Hookworm (New York: Chemical Foundation, 1926), 29.
63.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Report of the Commission, lii.
64.	Ibid., xvii.
65.	Ibid., xxiii.
66.	Ibid., xxxviii.
67.	Ibid., xlv.
68.	Ibid., lii.
69.	Ibid., xii.
70.	Ibid., xviii.
71.	Ibid., xxvi.
72.	Ibid., xxxiii.
73.	Ashford and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Uncinariasis in Porto Rico, 219.
74.	Ibid., 217.
75.	Juan Román to Bailey K. Ashford, September 23, 1904, CA, box 5, document 321.
76.	"Como aumenta la clientela del doctor Ashford," La correspondencia, August 31, 1904, 1.
77.	Ashford, King, and Gutiérrez Igaravídez, Preliminary Report, 8.
78.	In a recent study of US public health in the colonial Philippines, Warwick Anderson argues that colonial administrators transferred and adapted models of public health management back to the United States. See Warwick Anderson, "Pacific Crossings: Imperial Logics in the United States' Public Health Programs," in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State, edited by Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 277–87.
79.	L. L. Seaman, "Disease Perils Beset Natives of Puerto Rico," New York Herald, January 3, 1905, 2.
80.	Adam Haeselbarth, "The Puerto Rican Government's Fight with Anemia," American Monthly Review of Reviews 30, no. 174 (1904): 57.
81.	William H. Taft, "Some Recent Instances of National Altruism: The Efforts of the United States to Aid the People of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines," National Geographic Magazine 18, no. 7 (1907): 433–34.
82.	Bailey K. Ashford to Mrs. Francis Ashford, March 4, 1906, CA, box 6.
83.	William C. Gorgas to Bailey K. Ashford, December 3, 1903, CA, box 6.
84.	William C. Gorgas to the editor of the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, January 22, 1904, CA, box 6.
85.	L. L. Seaman, "Puerto Rico Ravaged by Disease that Threatens to Annihilate Natives," New York Herald, December 31, 1904, 2.
86.	Irving Norwood, "Germ of Laziness Found? Disease of the Crackers and of Some Nations Identified," New York Sun, December 5, 1902. See also Ettling, Germ of Laziness, 35–38; and Wray, Not Quite White, 104–108.
87.	"An Epidemic of Laziness, A Whole Region in Puerto Rico Afflicted with the Lazy Worm," New York Times, June 23, 1905; "Getting Tired of Laziness: Puerto Ricans Eager for Treatment to Cure the Disease Caused by the 'Lazy Worm'" New York Herald, June 24, 1905; "War on Lazy Worm: Good Effects of the Campaign in Puerto Rico," Star, September 15, 1905; and "Wiping Out Lazy Disease: Already Nearly 10,000 Cures in Puerto Rico," Philadelphia Reword, September 15, 1905.
88.	"Laziness Banished from the Island of Puerto Rico," New York Herald, June 24, 1905.
89.	René Bauch, "Los pálidos del sur," La correspondencia, November 5, 1909.
90.	Ashford to the director of La correspondencia, November 7, 1909, CA, box 6.
91.	See Ettling, Germ of Laziness, 125–30; William Link, "'The Harvest Is Ripe, but the Laborers are Few': The Hookworm Crusade in North Carolina, 1909–1915," North Carolina Historical Review 67 (1990): 1–27; and J. D. Woody, "The Hookworm Campaign in North Carolina," North Carolina Medical Journal 53, no. 2 (1992): 106–9.
92.	Wickliffe Rose to Bailey K. Ashford, June 23, 1910, Rockefeller Sanitary Commission Collection (hereafter RSC), Rockefeller Archive Center.
93.	Bailey K. Ashford to Wickliffe Rose, October 24, 1911; August 18, 1912; and April 21, 1914, RSC.
94.	Bailey K. Ashford to Wickliffe Rose, October 24, 1911; August 18, 1912; and April 21, 1914, RSC.
95.	For a comprehensive biography of Frade, see Osiris Delgado, Ramón Frade León, pintor puertorriqueño (1875–1954): Un virtuoso del intelecto (San Juan, Puerto Rico: Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Puerto Rico y el Caribe con la colaboracion del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, Academia Puertorriqueña de la Historia, 1989). For an overview of Puerto Rican art, see José Torres Martinó, "Puerto Rican Art in the Early Twentieth Century," in Puerto Rico—arte e identidad, edited by Hermandad de artistas gráficos de Puerto Rico (San Juan: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1998), 83–88.