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Before Tuskegee: Public Health and Venereal Disease in Hot Springs, Arkansas

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Low-Wage Legacies, Race, and the Golden Chicken in Mississippi: Where Contemporary Immigration Meets African American Labor History

...of the US South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009); Ricardo B. Contreras, "The Nuevo South Action Research Collaborative: A Model of Community Engagement and Service-learning in Eastern North Carolina...

References
1.	Pablo Armenta, interview with Angela Stuesse, July 7, 2005, Scott County, Mississippi. In this article we protect most research participants' confidentiality by omitting names or using pseudonyms. In cases where we quote industry representatives and other public or historical figures, we use their real names. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations from present-day residents and workers in Scott County are from Helton's fieldnotes, June–July 2003, or Stuesse's fieldnotes, June 2002–June 2008.
2.	US Bureau of the Census, "Scott County, Mississippi, General Population and Housing Characteristics: 1990," 1990, accessed on October 13, 2002, http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/BasicFactsTable?_lang=en&_vt_name=DEC_1990_STF1_DP1&_geo_id=05000US28123; US Bureau of the Census, "Scott County, Mississippi, Census 2000 population, demographic, and housing information: General Demographic Characteristics," 2000, accessed October 13, 2002, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/28/28123.html.
3.	For more on the poultry industry see Donald D. Stull and Michael J. Broadway, Slaughterhouse Blues: The Meat and Poultry Industry in North America (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2004); Steve Striffler, Chicken: The Dangerous Transformation of America's Favorite Food (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005); Kathleen Crowley Schwartzman, The Chicken Trail: Following Workers, Migrants, and Corporations across the Americas (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press of Cornell University Press, 2013). Parallel trends have diversified the demographic composition of other towns across the US South.
4.	Chris Allen Baker, "Battle for Golden Chicken Enters Its 80th Year," Scott County Times, October 21, 2009, accessed November 6, 2013, http://www.sctonline.net/news/article_2e8efddf-5c83-5935-9ea3-eac434b9b7cf.html.
5.	US Bureau of the Census, "Forest City, Mississippi, Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics, 2010," accessed December 23, 2013, http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_DP_DPDP1.
6.	Arthur D. Murphy, Colleen Blanchard, and Jennifer A. Hill, eds., Latino Workers in the Contemporary South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001); Barbara Ellen Smith, "The New Latino South: An Introduction," Across Races and Nations: Building New Communities in the US South (Memphis, TN: Center for Research on Women at the University of Memphis, Highlander Research and Education Center, and Southern Regional Council, 2001), http://www.memphis.edu/crow/pdfs/new_latino_south.pdf; Raymond A. Mohl, "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-Twentieth-Century Alabama," Alabama Review 55, no. 4 (October 2002): 243–274; Sandy Smith-Nonini, "Back to The Jungle: Processing Migrants in North Carolina Meatpacking Plants" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New Orleans, LA, November 20–24, 2002); Leon Fink, The Maya of Morganton: Work and Community in the Nuevo New South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Jamie Winders, "Changing Politics of Race and Region: Latino Migration to the US South," Progress in Human Geography 29, no. 6 (December 2005): 683–699; Paula D. McClain, et al., "Racial Distancing in a Southern City: Latino Immigrants' Views of Black Americans," Journal of Politics 68, no. 3 (July 2006): 571–584; Heather A. Smith and Owen J. Furuseth, eds., Latinos in the New South: Transformations of Place (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2006); Víctor Zúñiga and Rubén Hernández-León, eds., New Destinations: Mexican Immigration in the United States (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2005); Mary E. Odem and Elaine Lacy, eds., Latino Immigrants and the Transformation of the US South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009); Ricardo B. Contreras, "The Nuevo South Action Research Collaborative: A Model of Community Engagement and Service-learning in Eastern North Carolina (Towards a New Type of University-Community Collaboration)," June 10, 2010, accessed October 29, 2013, http://www.ecu.edu/cs-cas/anth/nuevosouth/upload/The-Nuevo-South-Action-Research-Collaborative.pdf; Hannah E. Gill, The Latino Migration Experience in North Carolina: New Roots in the Old North State (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Laura López-Sanders, "Is Brown the New Black?: Immigrant Incorporation and the Dynamics of Ethnic Replacement in New Destinations" (PhD dissertation, Stanford University, 2011); and Helen B. Marrow, New Destination Dreaming: Immigration, Race, and Legal Status in the Rural American South (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011).
7.	Fink, The Maya of Morganton; Mohl, "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie"; Natalia Deeb-Sossa and Jennifer Bickham Mendez, "Enforcing Borders in the Nuevo South: Gender and Migration in Williamsburg, Virginia, and the Research Triangle, North Carolina," Gender and Society 22, no. 5 (October 2008): 613–638; Smith and Furuseth, Latinos in the New South; and Irene Browne and Mary Odem, "Understanding the Diversity of Atlanta's Latino Population: Intersections of Race, Ethnicity and Class" (paper presented at Immigration to the US Southeast: Defining Problems, Finding Solutions Conference, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, October 30, 2010).
8.	For a detailed accounting of the development of this field, see, for example, Winders, "Changing Politics of Race and Region"; Marrow, New Destination Dreaming; and Jamie Winders, Nashville in the New Millennium: Immigrant Settlement, Urban Transformation, and Social Belonging (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2013).
9.	Julie M. Weise, Corazon de Dixie: Mexico and Mexicans in the US South since 1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, forthcoming).
10.	Winders, Nashville in the New Millennium.
11.	Significant works in this field include Edna Bonachich, "A Theory of Ethnic Antagonism: The Split Labor Market," American Sociological Review 37, no. 5 (October 1972): 547–559; Eric Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); and Gustavo Lins Ribeiro, Transnational Capitalism and Hydropolitics in Argentina: The Yacyretá High Dam (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994).
12.	On the long civil rights movement, see Jacqueline Dowd Hall, "The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past," Journal of American History 91, no. 4 (March 2005): 1233–1253. A key strand of literature on the black civil rights movement has discussed its intersection with labor histories. A small sampling includes: Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Robert Korstad, Civil Rights Unionism: Tobacco Workers and the Struggle for Democracy in the Mid-Twentieth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); John A. Salmond, Southern Struggles: The Southern Labor Movement and the Civil Rights Movement (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004); and Trevor Griffey and David Goldberg, Black Power at Work: Community Control, Affirmative Action, and the Construction Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010).
13.	A note on methodology: The authors met in 2003 in Scott County, Mississippi, as participants in the Poultry Worker Justice Research Project, an endeavor coordinated by Stuesse and colleagues at the University of Texas at Austin. The project laid the groundwork for Stuesse's doctoral research in anthropology, in which she studied how black, white, and new Latino Mississippians are experiencing the changes neoliberal globalization brings to their communities and workplaces, and the implications these have for building worker power in the poultry industry, see Angela Stuesse, "Globalization Southern-Style: Immigration, Race, and Work in the U.S. South" (unpublished manuscript, October 18, 2013), Microsoft Word file. Integral to this work conducted between 2002 and 2008, Stuesse was a founding collaborator of the Mississippi Poultry Workers' Center (MPOWER), see Angela Stuesse "Anthropology for Whom?: Challenges and Prospects of Activist Scholarship," in Public Anthropology in a Borderless World, ed. Sam Beck and Carl A. Maida (New York: Berghahn Books, forthcoming). Helton conducted research focused on the responses of black and white longtime residents of Scott County to immigration, see Laura E. Helton, "Three Hundred Strangers Next Door: Native Mississippians Respond to Immigration, A Report of the Poultry Worker Justice Research Project," Inter-American Policy Studies Occasional Papers, no. 4 (Austin, TX: Inter-American Policy Studies Program, Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs: Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies, The University of Texas at Austin, 2003). The following year she moved to the state capitol of Jackson, where for two years she worked as a field archivist for the Mississippi Digital Library, a collaboration between six archival repositories to increase access to civil rights-related collections across the state. These intersecting research projects resulted in a coauthored paper presented at the Southern Labor Studies Conference, see Laura E. Helton and Angela Stuesse, "Race, Low-wage Legacies and the Politics of Poultry Processing: Intersections of Contemporary Immigration and African American Labor Histories in Central Mississippi" (paper presented at the Southern Labor Studies Conference, Moving Workers: Migration and the South, April 15–17, 2004). The collaboration also inspired Stuesse to recognize the importance of the area's history in shaping current race and industrial relations, which has since become a central feature of her work. See, for example, Stuesse, "Globalization Southern-Style" and Angela Stuesse, "When Silences Beckon: The Sovereignty Commission's Chokehold on Civil Rights Histories in Central Mississippi, 1956–1973" (unpublished manuscript, June 12, 2013), Microsoft Word file.
14.	We base our analysis on research carried out between 2002 and 2008 (with the bulk between 2003 and 2005) that included extensive ethnographic fieldwork; oral history interviews; and archival research at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, the Forest Public Library, and limited private corporate holdings. This project presents significant archival challenges. Rural towns of this size are not regularly covered in major metropolitan and state newspapers (and as discussed in this piece, the county newspaper was under the control of a well-known white supremacist and excluded nearly all coverage of local civil rights struggles). In addition, there are no established municipal archives in these towns, which are only sparsely represented in the collections of the state archives. Finally, corporate archives are often notoriously guarded. While the records of local, family-owned businesses are often lost, we did encounter one family member who kept artifacts of his family's poultry business. The most valuable archival sources we located were the subject files and scrapbooks compiled by local public librarians in Forest and Morton.
15.	Interview with chicken plant worker, February 2, 2006, Scott County, Mississippi.
16.	Steve Striffler describes vertical integration as the process "whereby previously independent facets of the emerging industry were brought under the control of a single entity." Striffler, Chicken, 39. For more on the histories of black farmers in the US South, see Gail Myers, "Rhythms of the Land: Africa Came to America," 2013, accessed November 6, 2013, http://rhythmsoftheland.com.
17.	For more insight into the industrialization of poultry, see David Craig Griffith, Jones's Minimal: Low-Wage Labor in the United States (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Donald Stull, Michael Broadway, and David Griffith, eds., Any Way You Cut It: Meat Processing and Small-Town America (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); William Boyd and Michael Watts, "Agro-Industrial Just-In-Time: The Chicken Industry and Postwar American Capitalism," in Globalising Food: Agrarian Questions and Global Restructuring, ed. David Goodman and Michael Watts (London: Routledge, 1997), 192–225; Cedric Chatterley, Alicia J. Rouverol, and Stephen Cole, I Was Content and Not Content: The Story of Linda Lord and the Closing of Penobscot Poultry (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000); Stull and Broadway, Slaughterhouse Blues; Kathleen C. Schwartzman, The Chicken Trail: Following Workers, Migrants, and Corporations across the Americas (Ithaca: ILR Press of Cornell University Press, 2013).
18.	For a more detailed account of the development of Mississippi poultry, see Stuesse, "Globalization Southern-Style."
19.	Interview with civil rights veteran, January 31, 2006, Scott County, Mississippi.
20.	S. K. Richmond, "Garment Company Plans to Locate Plant at Carthage," Jackson Daily News, March 1, 1951, accessed at Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson, Mississippi, Subject file: Carthage; "Bond Issues in Canton Favored by Big Margin," Jackson Daily News, March 26, 1955, accessed at Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson, Mississippi, Subject file: Canton; "Sunbeam Clocks Made in Forest," Scott County Times, June, 1970, accessed at the Forest Public Library, Vertical file: Forest; Jack N. Stuart, A Story to Tell, A Farm to Sell: Live the Good Life in Mississippi (Morton, MS: Jack N. Stuart, 1975), accessed at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History; "New, Current Industries Honored at Program," Scott County Times, June 7, 1978, accessed on microfilm at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.
21.	"Sunbeam Clocks Made in Forest."
22.	C. T. Ramzy, "Leake County Produce Company," in The History of Leake County, Mississippi: Its People and Places, eds. Mac and Louise Spence (Dallas, TX: Curtis Media Corporation, 1984), 179–180.
23.	"Industrial Survey of Forest, Mississippi, Especially Prepared for Forest Chamber of Commerce," New Industries Department, Mississippi Poultry Commission, Forest Vertical File, Forest Public Library, Forest, Mississippi, 1963.
24.	Anita Grabowski, "La Pollera: Latin American Poultry Workers in Morton, Mississippi" (master's thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 2003); Anita Grabowski, "Organizing for Change: Labor Organizers and Latin American Poultry Workers, A Report of the Poultry Worker Justice Research Project," Inter-American Policy Studies Occasional Papers, no. 3 (Austin, TX: Inter-American Policy Studies Program, Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs: Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies, The University of Texas at Austin, 2004).
25.	Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1968); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Susie Erenrich, Freedom is a Constant Struggle: An Anthology of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement (Washington, DC: Center for Cultural Change, 1999); Winson Hudson and Constance Curry, Mississippi Harmony: Memoirs of a Freedom Fighter (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2002); Elizabeth Sutherland Martínez, Letters from Mississippi (Brookline, MA: Zephyr Press, 2002).
26.	"Don't Buy at These Stores," Madison County Movement, newsletter, Madison County Committee on Selective Buying, n.d., Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID # 10-55-9-56-1-1-1; Angela Stuesse, "Globalization Southern-Style."
27.	"Report on Canton," Council of Federated Organizations, Madison Country, Mississippi, February 26, 1964, Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID # 2-24-2-47-1-1-1; "Selective Buying Campaign," Madison County Movement, newsletter, Canton, Mississippi,1964, Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID #2-24-3-78-1-1-1; "Selective Buying Starts Again!," Madison County Movement, newsletter, Canton, Mississippi, 1965, Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID # 10-55-9-56-1-1-1; "Memo to: File, Subject: Canton Boycott," Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, September 1, 1966, Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID #2-24-4-41-1-1-1; "Memo to: File, Subject: Racial Matters and Boycott, Canton, Mississippi," Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, December 2, 1968, Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID #2-24-4-65-1-1-1.
28.	Stuesse, "Globalization Southern-Style." Elsewhere, Stuesse has argued that civil rights activism was less publicized—and likely much more circumscribed—in Scott County in large part because of the political power of Erle Johnston, a local businessman who invested in poultry processing and ancillary industries, owned the local newspaper for over forty years and eventually became mayor of Forest. A self-proclaimed "practical segregationist," Johnston was one of the key architects of white Mississippi's segregation movement during the 1960s, first as Public Relations Chair and then as Director of the Sovereignty Commission, the state's official weapon against the Civil Rights Movement. The Sovereignty Commission's investigators colluded with local officials to intimidate "race agitators" across the state, and archival evidence shows that they were active in Scott County as early as 1960. Stuesse, "When Silences Beckon."
29.	"Memo to: File, Subject: Cross Burnings in Forest," Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, May 7, 1965, Sovereignty Commission Digital Archives, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, SCR ID #2-128-0-32-1-1-1.
30.	Interview with Scott County resident, February 9, 2006, Scott County, Mississippi.
31.	"Industrial Survey of Forest, Mississippi"; "Sunbeam Clocks Made in Forest"; J. Rogers, "The Legacy of B.C. Rogers," Rogers Report 3 (Fall 1989), accessed at Morton Public Library, Morton, Mississippi.
32.	Interview with former chicken plant worker, July 28, 2003, Morton, Mississippi.
33.	Griffith, Jones's Minimal; Stull and Broadway, eds. Any Way You Cut It; Boyd and Watts, "Agro-Industrial Just-In-Time"; Chatterley, Rouverol, and Cole, I Was Content and Not Content; Stull and Schlosser, Slaughterhouse Blues.
34.	Interview with former chicken plant worker, February 9, 2006, Scott County, Mississippi.
35.	Interview with former chicken plant worker, January 31, 2006, Scott County, Mississippi.
36.	Interview with former chicken plant worker, February 9, 2006, Scott County, Mississippi.
37.	Bob Zellner, The Wrong Side of Murder Creek: A White Southerner in the Freedom Movement (Montgomery, AL: New South Books, 2008); Robert Analavage, GROW: A New Movement in the White South (New Orleans: Grass Roots Organizing Work, 1967), accessed at Mississippi Department of Archives and History; "Memorandum on the GROW Educational Center," Box 4, Folder 42, Z 1738.000 S, Campbell (Clarice T.) Papers, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.
38.	Tonny Algood, interview with Angela Stuesse, February 28, 2006, Mobile, Alabama.
39.	The federal Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, for which southern business interests lobbied intensively, weakened labor protections under the National Labor Relations Board, which was initially established by the Wagner Act in 1935. This new legislation empowered states to determine if employees at unionized workplaces would be required to join the union. Under "Right to Work" legislation, currently enacted in twenty-two states in the South and West, every individual worker can choose whether or not to pay union dues and become a member. In such "open shops," while all workers are protected by the collective bargaining agreement and unions are required to represent all workers equally, often only a fraction of these workers are dues-paying members. As a result, unions in "Right to Work" states typically have fewer resources, crippling their ability to sustainably organize and represent workers. Ida Leachman, "Black Women and Labor Unions in the South: From the 1970s to the 1990s," in Frontline Feminisms: Women, War, and Resistance, ed. Marguerite Waller and Jennifer Rycenga (New York: Routledge, 2000), 385–394.
40.	"Delta Ministry Report," May 1972, Charles Horwitz Papers, Tougaloo College Civil Rights Collection, T/014, Mississippi Department of Archives and History.

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