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Scales of Slavery on the Mason-Dixon Line: A Review of Gleanings of Freedom

Review Max Grivno's subtle and remarkably textured history of labor in northern Maryland and southern Pennsylvania, Gleanings of Freedom: Free and Slave Labor along the Mason Dixon Line, 1790–1860, details...

Beasts of the Southern Wild and Dirty Ecology

...a chorus of animals: "'I'm hungry. I want to poop.' But sometimes they start talking in codes." How do we make our way into the coded life of other species?...

Gordon Parks at Atlanta's High Museum of Art

...demeanor of Parks's subjects belies the injustice of the "separate but unequal"1Charlayne Hunter-Gault, "Doing the Best We Could with What We Had," in Gordon Parks: Segregation Story (Göttingen, Germany: Steidl,...

Low-Wage Legacies, Race, and the Golden Chicken in Mississippi: Where Contemporary Immigration Meets African American Labor History

...University of Illinois Press, 1994); Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Susie Erenrich,...

On Maps, Race, and Diasporic Self-Fashioning in Early Nineteenth-Century Brazil

...of Blackness axiomatically raise questions of free and restricted movement; territorial boundedness and segregation; and fugitivity from the earliest plantations to the present-day prison-industrial complex. For McKittrick, the structural histories of...

Three Poems and a Critique of Postracialism

...code." Is "She" "the poet" or Paul's "ivory spouse"? Given that generational confusions-of-tongues are a central feature of much of Alexander's poetry, it could well be both. In any case,...

"Beer, Prayer and Nellydrama": (Im)Possibilities in Max Vernon's The View UpStairs

...in a building that failed to meet New Orleans fire codes.38Fieseler, Tinderbox, 183. When the pandemonium was over, thirty-two victims had perished, either immediately or in the following days as...

References
1.	Buenaventura Lakes is a Census Designated Place (CDP), identified by the US Census Bureau. CDP's lack separate municipal governments. Osceola County is one of four counties located in the Orlando-Kissimmee-Sanford Metropolitan Statistical Area or "Greater Orlando."
2.	Poodlestix, original post on "Lakeside subdivision in Buena Ventura Lakes? (Kissimmee: house, neighborhood, income)," City-Data.com, June 17, 2008, http://www.city-data.com/forum/orlando/356547-lakeside-subdivision-buena-ventura-lakes.html. I have not corrected the grammar nor altered the language in any of the following Internet transcripts.
3.	In Long Island one immigrant or family rents a residential space, and then rents spaces within the home to several people. This system of renting rooms is a way of making money in a low-wage economy, a strategy for paying the mortgage or rent, and a form of entrepreneurship. See Sarah J. Mahler, American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
4.	Jane Hill, "Language, Race, and White Public Space," American Anthropologist 100, no. 3 (1999): 790.
5.	Judith T. Irvine, "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy," American Ethnologist 16, no. 2 (1989): 255.
6.	Alan Rumsey, "Wording, Meaning, and Linguistic Ideology," American Anthropologist 92, no. 2 (1990): 346–361; Kathryn A. Woolard and Bambi B. Schieffelin, "Language Ideology," Annual Review of Anthropology 23 (1994): 55–82.
7.	Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s (New York: Routledge, 1986).
8.	Jose Cobas, Jorge Duany, and Joe Feagin, "Introduction," in How the United States Racializes Latinos: White Hegemony and Its Consequences, John Cobas, Jorge Duany, and Joe Feagin, eds. (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2009), 1.
9.	Ibid.
10.	Sharon Ennis, Merarys Rios-Vargas, and Norma Albert, "The Hispanic Population: 2010, US Census Reports," accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf.
11.	Christina Burnett and Burke Marshall, eds. Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).
12.	Helen M. Strauch, "The Compelling Influence of Nonlinguistic Aims in Language Status Policy Planning in Puerto Rico," Working Papers in Educational Linguistics 8, no. 2 (Fall 1992): 107–131, http://www.gse.upenn.edu/wpel/sites/gse.upenn.edu.wpel/files/archives/v8/v8n2_strauch.pdf.
13.	Robert L. Cooper, Language Planning and Social Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 35.
14.	Edith Algren de Gutiérrez, The Movement Against Teaching English in the Schools of Puerto Rico, (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987), 105.
15.	Ofelia Garcia, "Racializing the Language Practices of U.S. Latinos: Impact on Their Education," in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 101–115.
16.	For a discussion of the racialization of Puerto Ricans see Lorrin Thomas, Puerto Rican Citizen: History and Political Identity in Twentieth Century New York City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); Juan Flores, From Bomba to Hip-Hop: Puerto Rican Culture and Latino Identity (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); and Arlene Dávila and Augistín Laó-Montes, eds., Mambo Montage: The Latinization of New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001).
17.	Ana Ramos-Zayas, National Performances: The Politics of Class, Race, and Space in Puerto Rico Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).
18.	Eileen Findlay, "Slipping and Sliding: The Many Meanings of Race in Life Histories of New York Puerto Rican Return Migrants in San Juan," Centro Journal 24, no. 1 (2012): 38.
19.	Ibid., 27.
20.	Fernando Purcell, "Becoming Dark: The Chilean Experience in California, 1848–1870," in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 54–67.
21.	Zulema Valdez, "Agency and Structure in Panethnic Identity Formation: The Case of Latino/a Entrepreneurs," in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 200–213.
22.	Rubén Rumbaut, "Pigments of Our Imagination: On the Racialization and Racial Identities of 'Hispanics' and 'Latinos,'" in How the United States Racializes Latinos, 23.
23.	Ibid.
24.	Grace Flores-Hughes, A Tale of Survival: Memoir of an Hispanic Woman (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011).
25.	Suzanne Obler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives: Identity and the Politics of (Re)Presentation in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
26.	Paul Taylor, Mark Hugo Lopez, Jessica Martínez, and Gabriel Velasco, "When Labels Don't Fit: Hispanics and Their Views of Identity," Pew Research Hispanic Trends Project, April 4, 2012, accessed November 9, 2013, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/04/when-labels-dont-fit-hispanics-and-their-views-of-identity/.
27.	These include the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce of Metro Orlando, Hispanic Bar Association of Central Florida, Hispanic Business Initiative Fund (HBIF), Hispanic Young Professionals & Entrepreneurs (HYPE), and Hispanosphere blog (http://www.orlandosentinel.com/elsentinel/blogs/hispanosphere/).
28.	"Grace Flores-Hughes Interview—She Made 'Hispanic' Official," The Washington Post, July 26, 2009, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/24/AR2009072402091.html.
29.	The term Nuyorican is used to refer to members of the Puerto Rican diaspora and differentiates those born on the island of Puerto Rico; however, the term often carries a negative connotation and implies a lack of cultural capital, ignorance of island life, and a lower social class status.
30.	Osceola County Public Information Office, "Citizen's Handbook: Honoring the Past, Shaping the Future," Osceola County Government, 1, http://www.osceola.org/Files/Websites/press_room/00000000_Imported/2008CitizenHanbdookHiRes.pdf.
31.	Jorge Duany, "The Orlando Ricans: Overlapping Identity Discourses Among Middle-Class Puerto Rican Immigrants," Centro Journal 22, no. 1 (Spring 2010): 3.
32.	In 1980, Puerto Rican households had the lowest national homeownership rate (21 percent) compared to Cuban (44 percent), Mexican (50 percent), and other Hispanic households (46 percent). The national Puerto Rican homeownership rate increased to 25 percent in 1990 and 34.9 percent in 2000. The homeownership rate amongst Puerto Ricans in Florida (56 percent) is significantly higher than national averages. See Alvaro Cortes, Christopher E. Herbert, Erin Wilson, and Elizabeth Clay, Improving Homeownership Opportunities for Hispanic Families: A Review of the Literature, (Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates Inc., 2006), http://www.huduser.org/Publications/PDF/hisp_homeown1.pdf.
33.	Sean Holton, "Many Seek A New Life In Orlando," Orlando Sentinel, November 14, 1993.
34.	Between the early sixteenth century and late nineteenth century Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony. The island was annexed to the United States in 1898 following the Spanish–American War. Puerto Rico is neither a state nor an independent country, but a commonwealth associated with the United States. The island has an elected governor and legislature, but no voting representatives in Congress. Additionally, residents of Puerto Rico may not vote in national elections and are exempt from federal taxes.
35.	Virginia Sanchez Korrol, From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1917–1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
36.	Teresa Whalen and Victor Vazquez-Hernandez, eds., The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2005).
37.	Francisco Rivera-Batiz and Carlos Santiago, Island Paradox: Puerto Rico in the 1990s (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1996), 12. Harvey S. Perloff, Puerto Rico's Economic Future: A Study of Planned Development, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950).
38.	Julio Morales, Puerto Rican Poverty and Migration: We Just Had to Try Elsewhere (New York: Praeger, 1986), 35.
39.	Korrol, From Colonia to Community: the History of Puerto Ricans in New York City.
40.	Victor Manuel Ramos, "1986: Couple escape New York for Central Florida retirement," Orlando Sentinel, February 5, 2006.

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